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The Origins of Ragtime: Exploring its Cultural Roots in Turn-of-the-Century America

bear — Thu, 01 May 2025 00:09:02 +0000

Ragtime History

Introduction to Ragtime: Defining Ragtime

Ragtime music emerged as a distinctively American style in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, originating primarily within African American communities in the Midwest and South. This genre’s rise coincided with major social changes in America, reflecting both cultural innovation and the blending of African and European musical traditions.

The defining trait of ragtime is its highly syncopated, or “ragged,” rhythm. Melodic accents often fall between the main beats, creating a lively, off-kilter feel that was new to many listeners at the time. Ragtime pieces, often called “rags,” typically consist of three or four contrasting sections or strains, each 16 or 32 measures long, often arranged in patterns of repeats and reprises.

Some notable characteristic features of ragtime music include:

Syncopation: The use of uneven rhythms to create a lively, off-kilter feel.
Piano-based: Most ragtime compositions were written for solo piano, exploiting the instrument’s ability to provide a steady, accented bass in the left hand and a syncopated melody in the right.
Meter: Usually written in 2/4 or 4/4 time, with a regular left-hand accompaniment (bass notes on strong beats and chords on weak beats) supporting the syncopated right-hand melody.

Ragtime’s significance in American music history cannot be overstated. This genre played a pivotal role in breaking racial and cultural barriers, paving the way for later genres such as jazz, swing, and rock and roll. Ragtime’s influence can also be seen in its impact on the music publishing industry, piano sales, and the growth of the recording industry.

The genre’s cultural fusion of African American and European musical elements symbolizes both the creative vitality and the social changes of its era. Composers like Scott Joplin, James Scott, and Joseph Lamb popularized ragtime, bringing it to a wider audience and cementing its place in American music history.

The Time Period: Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

Ragtime’s emergence during this era is significant not only as a musical innovation but also as a reflection of the broader social and cultural changes underway in America. The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a period of profound transformation and tension across American society.

Social and Cultural Context

African American Roots and Segregation: Ragtime originated within African American communities, drawing from traditions like jigs, marches, and the cakewalk.
Despite the creative vibrancy of these communities, the era was defined by intense racial segregation and the institutionalization of Jim Crow laws in the South, which enforced legal segregation and disenfranchised Black Americans.

Urbanization and Entertainment

The rapid urbanization of the late 19th century, fueled by industrialization and immigration, transformed American cities into bustling centers of economic and cultural activity. Ragtime flourished in urban venues such as saloons, gambling houses, pool halls, and brothels, where a single pianist could entertain crowds night after night.

The rise of vaudeville and mass entertainment also provided new platforms for ragtime’s spread across class and racial lines.
The mass production of sheet music and instruments made music more accessible to a wider audience.

Economic Climate

Despite economic hardship for many, the expanding urban middle class had increasing access to leisure activities and consumer goods, including sheet music and pianos, which helped fuel the popularity of ragtime.

The expanding middle class also led to an increase in consumer spending, as Americans began to enjoy more disposable income.
This shift was accompanied by a growing demand for entertainment and cultural activities.

The emerging social, cultural, and economic climate in late 19th-century America created a fertile ground for the development of ragtime. The genre’s unique blend of African American traditions and European classical forms helped it transcend racial boundaries and become a defining symbol of turn-of-the-century America.

African American Roots and Influences

African American musical traditions played a profound role in shaping the unique sound and spirit of ragtime music. The genre’s emergence was deeply rooted in various African American musical styles, each contributing distinct rhythmic, melodic, and cultural elements.

Marches: A popular style influenced by both military and brass band traditions, marches featured strong, steady rhythms with syncopated accents. Composers like John Philip Sousa popularized this form, which provided the structural template for many ragtime compositions.
Cakewalks: Originating among enslaved African Americans as a parody of formal mannerisms of white slave owners, cakewalks involved exaggerated dance movements and were often performed in contests. The music featured syncopated rhythms and a march-like feel, directly influencing the rhythmic style of ragtime.
Minstrel Songs: These songs popularized African American musical idioms like syncopation, call-and-response patterns, and dance tunes. They played a crucial role in spreading African American musical styles to mainstream American culture.

Ragtime’s unique sound was shaped by the blending of these traditions, which drew from various African American folk music elements such as work songs, spirituals, and banjo music. The banjo, with its percussive, syncopated playing style, was particularly influential in shaping ragtime’s characteristic left-hand accompaniment patterns.

The influence of African American musical traditions on ragtime is evident in the genre’s rhythmic complexity, melodic inventiveness, and cultural significance. By exploring these traditions, we can gain a deeper understanding of the cultural roots that gave rise to this iconic American music style.

The Role of African American Composers

African American composers played a pivotal role in shaping ragtime’s sound and status during the turn-of-the-century era. Scott Joplin, often referred to as the “King of Ragtime,” was a key figure in this transformation. His contributions not only elevated ragtime from popular entertainment to a respected art form but also paved the way for future generations of musicians.

Key Characteristics of African American Composers

Blending cultural influences: African American composers like Joplin synthesized African American rhythms and melodies with European forms, creating a unique genre that reflected the cultural diversity and creativity of Black America.
Innovative use of instruments: Joplin and other African American composers experimented with new instrumental combinations and techniques, expanding the possibilities of ragtime music.

Scott Joplin: A Pioneer in Ragtime

Joplin’s contributions to ragtime were profound. He:

Elevated ragtime from popular entertainment to a respected art form: By emphasizing structure, depth, and musical sophistication, Joplin distinguished his compositions from the more improvisational and less respected popular music of the time.
Composed over 40 original ragtime pieces: Classics like “Maple Leaf Rag,” “The Entertainer,” and “Peacherine Rag” remain iconic examples of Joplin’s mastery of the genre.
Taught himself piano and drew upon African American folk traditions and European classical music: This unique blend of influences resulted in a distinctive musical style that continues to inspire artists today.

Impact on Future Generations

The contributions of African American composers like Scott Joplin had far-reaching effects:

Inspired jazz and blues musicians: Ragtime’s complex rhythms and melodies influenced the development of these genres.
Paved the way for future musical innovations: By pushing the boundaries of ragtime, Joplin and other African American composers opened doors to new artistic possibilities.

In conclusion, the role of African American composers in shaping ragtime cannot be overstated. Their innovative approaches, blending cultural influences, and emphasis on musical sophistication transformed a popular genre into a respected art form.

Cultural Exchange and the Evolution of Ragtime

The Influence of European Classical Music

European classical music played a profound role in shaping the origins of ragtime, a uniquely American genre that emerged in turn-of-the-century America. Composers like Franz Liszt and Claude Debussy significantly influenced ragtime’s development, contributing to its unique sound and style.

Liszt’s Influence

Franz Liszt, a Hungarian composer and pianist, was a pioneer of virtuosic piano music. His innovations in piano technique, showmanship, and use of syncopation influenced the technical approach of later ragtime composers. Many early ragtime pianists were classically trained, drawing from Liszt’s tradition of expressive, technically demanding piano music.

Some passages in Liszt’s works, such as his Hungarian Rhapsodies, feature rhythmic vitality and dance-like qualities that anticipate aspects of ragtime. These elements were incorporated into the development of ragtime, adding to its energetic and lively spirit.

Debussy’s Contribution

Claude Debussy, a French composer, was among the first major European composers to incorporate ragtime rhythms and styles into classical compositions. He encountered ragtime at the 1900 Paris Exposition, likely through John Philip Sousa’s band. Debussy’s experimentation with extended harmonies, voicings, and rhythmic patterns helped bridge ragtime and jazz with European art music.

Debussy’s piece “Golliwog’s Cake Walk” (from Children’s Corner, 1908) directly emulates the syncopated rhythms and playful spirit of ragtime, blending them with his impressionistic harmonies. This direct incorporation of ragtime elements into classical compositions demonstrates Debussy’s significant influence on the development of ragtime.

Reciprocal Influence

The popularity of ragtime in Europe led to its adoption and adaptation by classical composers. Conversely, ragtime composers in America drew from European forms and harmonic language, creating a hybrid style that was distinctly American yet globally resonant.

This reciprocal exchange between European classical music and ragtime highlights the complex and dynamic nature of musical influence. The boundaries between genres blurred, leading to the creation of new and innovative sounds that continue to shape our understanding of music today.

In conclusion, the influence of European classical music on ragtime cannot be overstated. Composers like Liszt and Debussy played a significant role in shaping the development of ragtime, contributing to its unique sound and style. Their innovations and experiments paved the way for the creation of this iconic American genre.

Ragtime in the Vaudeville Circuit

Vaudeville played a pivotal role in popularizing ragtime, transforming the genre from a regional phenomenon into a staple of American popular culture. During its heyday, vaudeville was the dominant form of live entertainment in the United States, featuring a diverse range of acts including music, comedy, dance, and novelty performances.

Vaudeville’s exposure to ragtime was multifaceted, with the genre being incorporated into various acts as featured performances or background music for dance and comedy routines.
Ragtime’s unique syncopated rhythms captivated audiences, making it an ideal fit for vaudeville’s energetic and varied format.
The integration of ragtime into vaudeville acts helped to expose the genre to diverse, nationwide audiences who might not have encountered it otherwise.

A Platform for African American Artists

Vaudeville also provided a platform for Black performers and composers to present authentic versions of ragtime and challenge prevailing stereotypes. Notable African American entertainers and songwriters contributed original ragtime compositions and performances, helping to shape the genre’s sound and expand its reach.

Despite segregation and discrimination, vaudeville offered opportunities for African American artists to showcase their talents and share their music with a broader audience.
The contributions of these artists helped to create a more diverse and inclusive representation of ragtime, paving the way for future generations of musicians.

Evolution Through Interpretation

As ragtime became a vaudeville staple, it was adapted and interpreted by a wide range of musicians and performers. This process encouraged stylistic variation, with ragtime evolving to suit different acts and audience tastes. The genre took on a life of its own, influenced by the various interpretations and reinterpretations that emerged.

Vaudeville’s emphasis on live performance and improvisation allowed for a high degree of creative freedom, enabling musicians to experiment and innovate within the genre.
The resulting diversity of ragtime helped to keep the genre fresh and exciting, even as it gained widespread popularity.

Key Figures and Milestones

Scott Joplin: The ‘King of Ragtime’

Scott Joplin, known as the “King of Ragtime,” was a pioneering African American composer who played a pivotal role in shaping the genre’s development in turn-of-the-century America.

Born on November 24, 1868, in Texarkana, Texas (or so sources dispute), Joplin was one of six children in a musical family. His father, who played violin, and mother, who sang and played banjo, exposed him to music from an early age. By the time he was seven, Joplin began teaching himself piano, with later instruction from his mother and Julius Weiss, a German music professor who introduced him to classical music.

As a teenager, Joplin performed in local ensembles and sang in a quartet before leaving home in the late 1880s to become a traveling musician. He eventually settled in Sedalia, Missouri, where he attended George R. Smith College and immersed himself in the emerging ragtime scene. It was during this time that he composed his breakthrough piece, “Maple Leaf Rag,” which became the first and most influential ragtime hit, selling over a million copies and earning him the title “King of Ragtime.”

Joplin’s contributions to ragtime went beyond his own compositions. He worked tirelessly to elevate the genre’s status from popular dance music to a respected art form, teaching and mentoring other ragtime composers, including Arthur Marshall and Scott Hayden. His music brought depth and sophistication to ragtime, helping transform it into a central part of American musical history.

Some of Joplin’s most notable works include:

“The Entertainer”
“Peacherine Rag”
“The Chrysanthemum”
“Solace”
“Easy Winners”

Despite his struggles with syphilis and declining health, Joplin’s legacy endured. In the 1970s, a major revival of interest in his work led to the staging of his opera “Treemonisha” to critical acclaim. The piece was finally published in New York, cementing Joplin’s status as one of the most important figures in ragtime.

Today, Scott Joplin is celebrated for his innovative and influential contributions to American music. His works remain central to the repertoire, and his life story continues to inspire musicians and composers worldwide. As a pioneer in ragtime, Joplin paved the way for future generations of artists, leaving behind a lasting impact on the genre that continues to be felt today.

The Publication of ‘The Maple Leaf Rag’

In 1899, Scott Joplin published his iconic composition, “Maple Leaf Rag,” which would go on to shape the course of ragtime history and leave an indelible mark on American music.

A Key Milestone in Ragtime’s Development

“Maple Leaf Rag” was more than just a catchy tune; it was a defining moment for the ragtime genre. The piece’s innovative use of syncopation, multi-strain form, and catchy melodies set the standard for future compositions and helped elevate ragtime from dance hall entertainment to a respected art form.

The Impact on Popular Culture

The phenomenal commercial success of “Maple Leaf Rag” triggered a nationwide craze, with sheet music sales reaching over one million copies by 1914. This widespread popularity not only propelled Joplin to national fame but also inspired hundreds of composers to write their own rags, leading to the establishment of ragtime instruction schools across the country.

A Phenomenon that Crossed Generational Lines: The song’s enduring appeal is evident in its continued performance, recordings, and revivals. Its influence can be seen in various forms of music, including jazz and American popular music more broadly.
A Legacy that Endures: “Maple Leaf Rag” remains a beloved classic, regularly performed by pianists worldwide and recognized as a symbol of American musical innovation and heritage.

The Significance of Joplin’s Composition

In summary, “Maple Leaf Rag” was pivotal in popularizing ragtime, setting the artistic and commercial standard for the genre, and cementing Scott Joplin’s legacy as one of America’s most important composers. Its influence can still be felt today, making it a cornerstone of American music history.

The publication of “Maple Leaf Rag” marked a turning point in the development of ragtime, showcasing its potential to transcend traditional boundaries and become an integral part of American musical culture.

Legacy and Impact

Ragtime’s Influence on American Music

Ragtime, a genre of music that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, had a profound impact on the development of American music. Its influence can be seen in various genres, including jazz, blues, and swing.

• Jazz: Ragtime’s syncopated rhythms and formal structures were instrumental in the birth of jazz. The energetic, danceable rhythms of ragtime directly influenced the dance music that would become swing. Ragtime’s innovations in rhythm, form, and performance practice helped establish the foundation for American popular music in the 20th century.

• Blues: Ragtime’s rhythmic interplay and formal structure contributed to the evolution of the blues repertoire. The syncopated rhythms of ragtime translated into the rhythmic “swing” feel that defined big band music of the 1930s and 1940s.

• Swing: Ragtime’s popularity in dance halls and its adaptation by orchestras helped pave the way for the rise of large dance bands, which would later dominate the swing era. The energetic rhythms of ragtime directly influenced the development of swing music, with many swing musicians drawing on ragtime’s syncopated rhythms and formal structures.

Ragtime’s influence extended beyond jazz, blues, and swing, impacting European classical composers and shaping the development of American musical theater and popular song. Its legacy can be heard in the music of many notable artists, from Duke Ellington to Louis Armstrong.

The impact of ragtime on American music is a testament to its innovative spirit and its ability to influence future generations of musicians. As we explore the cultural roots of ragtime, it becomes clear that this genre was more than just a fleeting fad – it was a catalyst for musical evolution and growth.

Ragtime in Modern Times

As we delve into the cultural roots of ragtime in turn-of-the-century America, it’s essential to explore its continued relevance and popularity in contemporary music and culture.

Despite being a product of its time, ragtime has managed to endure and evolve, influencing various genres and artists across the globe. Its unique blend of African-American musical traditions, European instrumentation, and innovative rhythms has made it a staple in modern music.

Key Factors Contributing to Ragtime’s Enduring Popularity

Influence on Popular Music: Ragtime’s influence can be seen in many popular music genres, including jazz, blues, and swing. Artists such as Duke Ellington, Count Basie, and Artie Shaw have all been influenced by ragtime.
Cultural Relevance: Ragtime’s themes of love, longing, and social commentary continue to resonate with audiences today. The music’s ability to evoke emotions and tell stories has made it a staple in contemporary music.
Nostalgia and Retro Appeal: Ragtime’s retro appeal has also contributed to its enduring popularity. Many modern artists have incorporated ragtime elements into their music, appealing to fans of vintage jazz and blues.

Ragtime in Modern Media

Film and Television Soundtracks: Ragtime’s nostalgic charm has made it a popular choice for film and television soundtracks. The music has been featured in movies such as “The Sting” and TV shows like “Mad Men.”
Video Games: Ragtime’s influence can also be seen in video games, with titles like “Grand Theft Auto V” featuring ragtime-inspired music.
Live Performances: Modern artists continue to draw inspiration from ragtime, performing live shows that blend traditional jazz and blues with modern rock and pop elements.

Conclusion

Ragtime’s continued relevance and popularity in contemporary music and culture are a testament to its enduring legacy. As we continue to explore the cultural roots of this iconic genre, it’s clear that ragtime remains an essential part of our musical heritage.

Christianity

bear — Sun, 05 Jul 2020 06:26:35 +0000

Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth

Part of a series on

Christianity

Jesus
Christ

Jesus in Christianity
Nativity
Crucifixion
Resurrection

Bible
Foundations

Old Testament
New Testament
Gospel
Canon
Books of the Bible
Church
Creed
New Covenant

Theology

God
Trinity
- Father
- Son
- Holy Spirit

Apologetics
Baptism
Christology
History of theology
Mission
Salvation

History
Tradition

Apostles
Peter
Paul
Mary
Early Christianity
Church Fathers
Constantine
Councils
Augustine
East–West Schism
Crusades
Aquinas
Reformation
Luther

Denominations
Groups

Western
Roman Catholic Protestant Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinist Evangelical Holiness Lutheran Methodist Pentecostal
Eastern
Assyrian Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox
Nontrinitarian
Jehovah’s Witness Latter Day Saint Oneness Pentecostal

Etymology

Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as ‘The Way’ (της οδου), probably coming from Isaiah 40:3, “prepare the way of the Lord.”[19][note 1] According to Acts 11:26, the term “Christian” (Greek: Χριστιανός) was first used in reference to Jesus’s disciples in the city of Antioch, meaning “followers of Christ,” by the non-Jewish inhabitants of Antioch.[25] The earliest recorded use of the term “Christianity” (Greek: Χριστιανισμός) was by Ignatius of Antioch, in around 100 AD.[26]

Beliefs

While Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are also differences of interpretations and opinions of the Bible and sacred traditions on which Christianity is based.[27]

Creeds

An Eastern Christian icon depicting Emperor Constantine and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381

Main articles: Creed § Christian creeds, and List of Christian creeds

Wikisource has original text related to this article:Apostles’ Creed

Wikisource has original text related to this article:Nicene Creed

Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith.

The Apostles’ Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of Western Christian tradition, including the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Western Rite Orthodoxy. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists. This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.[28] Its points include:

Belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit
The death, descent into hell, resurrection and ascension of Christ
The holiness of the Church and the communion of saints
Christ’s second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful

The Nicene Creed was formulated, largely in response to Arianism, at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively,[29][30] and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431.[31]

The Chalcedonian Definition, or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451,[32] though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox,[33] taught Christ “to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably”: one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also perfectly united into one person.[34]

The Athanasian Creed, received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: “We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance.”[35]

Most Christians (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Protestant alike) accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above.[36]

Many Evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. Most Baptists do not use creeds “in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another.”[37]:111 Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, and the Churches of Christ.[38][39]:14–15[40]:123

Jesus

Various depictions of Jesus

Main articles: Jesus in Christianity and Christ (title)

See also: Incarnation (Christianity) and Jesus in comparative mythology

The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus’ coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God, and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[41]

While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over the earliest centuries of Christian history, generally, Christians believe that Jesus is God incarnate and “true God and true man” (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the New Testament, he rose from the dead,[42] ascended to heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father,[43] and will ultimately return[Acts 1:9–11] to fulfill the rest of the Messianic prophecy, including the resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment, and the final establishment of the Kingdom of God.

According to the canonical gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus’ childhood is recorded in the canonical gospels, although infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the New Testament, because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical accounts of Jesus’ ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.

Death and resurrection

Main articles: Crucifixion of Jesus and Resurrection of Jesus

Crucifixion, representing the death of Jesus on the Cross, painting by Diego Velázquez, c. 1632

Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in history.[44] Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based.[45] According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later.[Jn. 19:30–31] [Mk. 16:1] [16:6]

The New Testament mentions several post-resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including “more than five hundred brethren at once”,[1Cor 15:6] before Jesus’ ascension to heaven. Jesus’ death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week, which includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday.

The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life.[46]

Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions.[47] Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus’ followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church.[48] Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,[49][50] seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues.[51] Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, “If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless.”[1Cor 15:14][52]

Salvation

Main article: Salvation in Christianity

“The Law and the Gospel” by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529); Moses and Elijah point the sinner to Jesus for salvation

Paul the Apostle, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life.[53] For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are “Christ’s” are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and “heirs according to the promise”.[Gal. 3:29][54] The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the “mortal bodies” of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel, the “children of God”, and were therefore no longer “in the flesh”.[Rom. 8:9,11,16][53]

Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be saved from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God’s family. According to Eastern Orthodox theology, based upon their understanding of the atonement as put forward by Irenaeus’ recapitulation theory, Jesus’ death is a ransom. This restores the relation with God, who is loving and reaches out to humanity, and offers the possibility of theosis c.q. divinization, becoming the kind of humans God wants humanity to be. According to Catholic doctrine, Jesus’ death satisfies the wrath of God, aroused by the offense to God’s honor caused by human’s sinfulness. The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.[55] In Protestant theology, Jesus’ death is regarded as a substitutionary penalty carried by Jesus, for the debt that has to be paid by humankind when it broke God’s moral law. Martin Luther taught that baptism was necessary for salvation, but modern Lutherans and other Protestants tend to teach that salvation is a gift that comes to an individual by God’s grace, sometimes defined as “unmerited favor”, even apart from baptism.[citation needed]

Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals’ salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible.[56] In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Arminian Protestants believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus.[57]

Trinity

Main article: Trinity

The Trinity is the belief that God is one God in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit[58]

Trinity refers to the teaching that the one God[59] comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons: the Father, the Son (incarnate in Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead,[60][61][62] although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead.[63] In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, “the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God”.[64] They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. While some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the Old Testament, it is agreed that he appeared as the Son in the New Testament, and will still continue to manifest as the Holy Spirit in the present. But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times.[65] However, traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for example, when the Trinity is depicted in art, the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a cruciform halo identifying Christ, and in depictions of the Garden of Eden, this looks forward to an Incarnation yet to occur. In some Early Christian sarcophagi the Logos is distinguished with a beard, “which allows him to appear ancient, even pre-existent.”[66]

The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated[67] the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith. According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded “that God must exist as both a unity and trinity”, codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.[68][69]

According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western Christian theology) from the Son. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three “persons” are each eternal and omnipotent. Other Christian religions including Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Mormonism, do not share those views on the Trinity.

The Greek word trias[70][note 2] is first seen in this sense in the works of Theophilus of Antioch; his text reads: “of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom”.[74] The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent,[note 2] trinitas,[72] appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in Tertullian.[75][76] In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen.[77]

Trinitarians

Main article: Trinitarianism

Trinitarianism denotes Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words “Trinity” and “Triune” do not appear in the Bible, beginning in the 3rd century theologians developed the term and concept to facilitate comprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of Tritheism), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father (Arianism). Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three persons.[78]

Nontrinitarianism

Main article: Nontrinitarianism

Nontrinitarianism (or antitrinitarianism) refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.[79] Nontrinitarianism reappeared in the Gnosticism of the Cathars between the 11th and 13th centuries, among groups with Unitarian theology in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century,[80] in the 18th-century Enlightenment, and in some groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century.

Eschatology

Main article: Christian eschatology

The 7th-century Khor Virap monastery in the shadow of Mount Ararat; Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion, in AD 301[81]

The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking, is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the Tribulation, death and the afterlife, (mainly for Evangelical groups) the Millennium and the following Rapture, the Second Coming of Jesus, Resurrection of the Dead, Heaven, (for liturgical branches) Purgatory, and Hell, the Last Judgment, the end of the world, and the New Heavens and New Earth.

Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time, after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies.[82][83]

Death and afterlife

Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the resurrection of the dead as well as the belief (held by Catholics,[84][85] Orthodox[86][87] and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death.

In the liturgical branches (e.g. Catholicism or Eastern or Oriental Orthodoxy), those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God’s presence.[88] Those who have attained this goal are called saints (Latin sanctus, “holy”).[89]

Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to mortalism, the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to Annihilationism, the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah’s Witnesses hold to a similar view.[90]

Practices

Main articles: Christian worship and Church service

See also: Mass (liturgy), Reformed worship, and Contemporary worship

Samples of Catholic religious objects – the Bible, a crucifix and a rosary

Depending on the specific denomination of Christianity, practices may include baptism, the Eucharist (Holy Communion or the Lord’s Supper), prayer (including the Lord’s Prayer), confession, confirmation, burial rites, marriage rites and the religious education of children. Most denominations have ordained clergy who lead regular communal worship services.[91]

Communal worship

Services of worship typically follow a pattern or form known as liturgy.[note 3] Justin Martyr described 2nd-century Christian liturgy in his First Apology (c. 150) to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:

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And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.[93]

Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship typically on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospels.[note 4][94] Instruction is given based on these readings, called a sermon or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung.[91] Psalms, hymns, or worship songs may be sung.[95][96] Services can be varied for special events like significant feast days.[97]

Nearly all forms of worship incorporate the Eucharist, which consists of a meal. It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus’ instruction at the Last Supper that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples bread, saying, “This is my body”, and gave them wine saying, “This is my blood”.[98] In the early church, Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the service.[99] Some denominations continue to practice ‘closed communion’. They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of mortal sin.[100] Many other churches practice ‘open communion’ since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate.[101][102]

Sacraments

Main article: Sacrament

See also: Sacraments of the Catholic Church, Anglican sacraments, and Lutheran sacraments

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2nd-century description of the Eucharist

And this food is called among us Eukharistia [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.

Justin Martyr[93]

In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite, instituted by Christ, that confers grace, constituting a sacred mystery. The term is derived from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery. Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions.[103]

The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist, however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: Confirmation (Chrismation in the Orthodox tradition), Holy Orders (or ordination), Penance (or Confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony (see Christian views on marriage).[103]

Taken together, these are the Seven Sacraments as recognized by churches in the High Church tradition—notably Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Independent Catholic, Old Catholic, many Anglicans, and some Lutherans. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology.[103] Christian denominations, such as Baptists, which believe these rites do not communicate grace, prefer to call Baptism and Holy Communion ordinances rather than sacraments.[citation needed]

In addition to this, the Church of the East has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include Holy Leaven (Melka) and the sign of the cross.[104]

Baptism, specifically infant baptism, in the Lutheran tradition
A penitent confessing his sins in a Ukrainian Catholic church
A Methodist minister celebrating the Eucharist
Confirmation being administered in an Anglican church
Ordination of a priest in the Eastern Orthodox tradition
Crowning during Holy Matrimony in the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
Service of the Sacrament of Holy Unction served on Great and Holy Wednesday

Liturgical calendar

Main article: Liturgical year

Symbols

Main article: Christian symbolism

The cross and the fish are two common symbols of Jesus Christ; letters of the Greek word ΙΧΘΥΣ Ichthys (fish) form an acronym for “Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ”, which translates into English as “Jesus Christ, God’s Son, Savior”

Christianity has not generally practiced aniconism, the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early Jewish Christians and some modern denominations, invoking the Decalogue’s prohibition of idolatry, avoided figures in their symbols.

The cross, today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times.[108][109] Tertullian, in his book De Corona, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads.[110] Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century.[111]

Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or Ichthys seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century.[112] Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ichthys (fish) forming an acronym for the Greek phrase Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ),[note 5] (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith.[112]

Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho monogram, the dove (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ’s sacrifice), the vine (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from passages of the New Testament.[111]

Baptism

Main article: Baptism

The baptism of Jesus depicted by Almeida Júnior (1895)

Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Church. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance. Some, such as the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person’s faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. Others view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology of the act. These methods are: by immersion; if immersion is total, by submersion; by affusion (pouring); and by aspersion (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of infant baptism;[113] the Orthodox Churches all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.[114][115] The Catholic Church also practices infant baptism,[116] usually by affusion, and utilizing the Trinitarian formula.[117]

Prayer

Main article: Prayer in Christianity

“… ‘Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. Forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.’”

— The Lord’s Prayer, Matthew 6:9-13, EHV[118]

Jesus’ teaching on prayer in the Sermon on the Mount displays a distinct lack of interest in the external aspects of prayer. A concern with the techniques of prayer is condemned as “pagan”, and instead a simple trust in God’s fatherly goodness is encouraged.[Mat. 6:5–15] Elsewhere in the New Testament, this same freedom of access to God is also emphasized.[Phil. 4:6][Jam. 5:13–19] This confident position should be understood in light of Christian belief in the unique relationship between the believer and Christ through the indweling of the Holy Spirit.[119]

In subsequent Christian traditions, certain physical gestures are emphasized, including medieval gestures such as genuflection or making the sign of the cross. Kneeling, bowing, and prostrations (see also poklon) are often practiced in more traditional branches of Christianity. Frequently in Western Christianity, the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal commendation ceremony. At other times the older orans posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in.

Intercessory prayer is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the Apostle Peter on behalf of sick persons[Acts 9:40] and by prophets of the Old Testament in favor of other people.[1Ki 17:19–22] In the Epistle of James, no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet Elijah.[Jam 5:16–18] The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying.[119]

The ancient church, in both Eastern and Western Christianity, developed a tradition of asking for the intercession of (deceased) saints, and this remains the practice of most Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican churches. Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.[120] The reformer Huldrych Zwingli admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was idolatrous.[121]

According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church: “Prayer is the raising of one’s mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God.”[122] The Book of Common Prayer in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms.[123]

Scriptures

Main articles: Bible, Biblical canon, Development of the Christian biblical canon, and Religious text

The Bible is the sacred book in Christianity.

Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the biblical canon, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as the inspired word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in 2 Timothy 3:16 is theopneustos, which literally means “God-breathed”.[124]

Some believe that divine inspiration makes our present Bibles inerrant. Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the King James Version.[125][126][127] Another closely related view is biblical infallibility or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science.

The books of the Bible accepted by the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches vary somewhat, with Jews accepting only the Hebrew Bible as canonical; however, there is substantial overlap. These variations are a reflection of the range of traditions, and of the councils that have convened on the subject. Every version of the Old Testament always includes the books of the Tanakh, the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The Catholic and Orthodox canons, in addition to the Tanakh, also include the deuterocanonical books as part of the Old Testament. These books appear in the Septuagint, but are regarded by Protestants to be apocryphal. However, they are considered to be important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.[128] The New Testament, originally written in Koine Greek, contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all churches.

Modern scholarship has raised many issues with the Bible. While the King James Version is held to by many because of its striking English prose, in fact it was translated from the Erasmus Greek Bible, which in turn “was based on a single 12th Century manuscript that is one of the worst manuscripts we have available to us”.[129] Much scholarship in the past several hundred years has gone into comparing different manuscripts in order to reconstruct the original text. Another issue is that several books are considered to be forgeries. The injunction that women “be silent and submissive” in 1 Timothy 2[130] is thought by many to be a forgery by a follower of Paul, a similar phrase in 1 Corinthians 14,[131] which is thought to be by Paul, appears in different places in different manuscripts and is thought to originally be a margin note by a copyist.[129] Other verses in 1 Corinthians, such as 1 Corinthians 11:2–16 where women are instructed to wear a covering over their hair “when they pray or prophesies”,[132] contradict this verse.

A final issue with the Bible is the way in which books were selected for inclusion in the New Testament. Other gospels have now been recovered, such as those found near Nag Hammadi in 1945, and while some of these texts are quite different from what Christians have been used to, it should be understood that some of this newly recovered Gospel material is quite possibly contemporaneous with, or even earlier than, the New Testament Gospels. The core of the Gospel of Thomas, in particular, may date from as early as AD 50 (although some major scholars contest this early dating),[133] and if so would provide an insight into the earliest gospel texts that underlie the canonical Gospels, texts that are mentioned in Luke 1:1–2. The Gospel of Thomas contains much that is familiar from the canonical Gospels—verse 113, for example (“The Father’s Kingdom is spread out upon the earth, but people do not see it”),[134] is reminiscent of Luke 17:20–21[135][136]—and the Gospel of John, with a terminology and approach that is suggestive of what was later termed Gnosticism, has recently been seen as a possible response to the Gospel of Thomas, a text that is commonly labeled proto-Gnostic. Scholarship, then, is currently exploring the relationship in the early church between mystical speculation and experience on the one hand and the search for church order on the other, by analyzing new-found texts, by subjecting canonical texts to further scrutiny, and by an examination of the passage of New Testament texts to canonical status.

Catholic interpretation

St. Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City, the largest church in the world and a symbol of the Catholic Church

Main article: Catholic theology of Scripture

In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.[137]

Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.[138]

The literal sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The spiritual sense is further subdivided into:

The allegorical sense, which includes typology. An example would be the parting of the Red Sea being understood as a “type” (sign) of baptism.[1Cor 10:2]
The moral sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching.
The anagogical sense, which applies to eschatology, eternity and the consummation of the world

Regarding exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:

The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal[139][140]
That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held[141]
That scripture must be read within the “living Tradition of the whole Church”[142] and
That “the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome”.[143]

Protestant interpretation

The Luther Bible (shown above) was an early translation of the Bible by a Protestant. Another early unauthorized translation was Wycliffe’s Bible.

Qualities of Scripture

Protestant Christians believe that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation. This concept is known as sola scriptura.[144] Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear in its meaning (or “perspicuous”). Martin Luther believed that without God’s help, Scripture would be “enveloped in darkness”.[145] He advocated for “one definite and simple understanding of Scripture”.[145] John Calvin wrote, “all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light”.[146] Related to this is “efficacy”, that Scripture is able to lead people to faith; and “sufficiency”, that the Scriptures contain everything that one needs to know in order to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.[147]

Original intended meaning of Scripture

Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical method.[148] The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text.[149] This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations.[150] The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: “A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture.”[151] Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage’s significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics.[149]

Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology.[152]

History

Main article: History of Christianity

Early Christianity

Apostolic Age

Chapel of Saint Ananias, Damascus, Syria, an early example of a Christian house of worship; built in the 1st century AD

An early circular ichthys symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a wheel, Ephesus, Asia Minor

The Monastery of St. Matthew, located atop Mount Alfaf in northern Iraq, is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence[153]

Kadisha Valley, Lebanon, home to some of the earliest Christian monasteries in the world

Main article: Christianity in the 1st century

Christianity developed during the 1st century CE as a Jewish Christian sect of Second Temple Judaism.[154][155] An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, the brother of the Lord, Peter, and John.[156]

Jewish Christianity soon attracted Gentile God-fearers, posing a problem for its Jewish religious outlook, which insisted on close observance of the Jewish commands. Paul the Apostle solved this by insisting that salvation by faith in Christ, and participation in his death and resurrection, sufficed.[157] At first he persecuted the early Christians, but after a conversion experience he preached to the gentiles, and is regarded as having had a formative effect on the emerging Christian identity as separate from Judaism. Eventually, his departure from Jewish customs would result in the establishment of Christianity as an independent religion.[158]

Ante-Nicene period

Main article: Ante-Nicene period

This formative period was followed by the early bishops, whom Christians consider the successors of Christ’s apostles. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and the study of them is called patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen.

According to the New Testament, Christians were from the beginning, subject to persecution by some Jewish and Roman religious authorities. This involved punishments, including death, for Christians such as Stephen[Acts 7:59] and James, son of Zebedee.[Acts 12:2] Further widespread persecution of the Church occurred under nine subsequent Roman emperors, most intensely under Decius and Diocletian.

Spread and acceptance in Roman Empire

Christendom by A.D. 600 after its spread to Africa and Europe from the Middle East

An example of Byzantine pictorial art, the Deësis mosaic at the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople

Early Middle Ages

With the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the West, the papacy became a political player, first visible in Pope Leo’s diplomatic dealings with Huns and Vandals.[177] The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. While Arianists instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see the Massacre of Verden, for example), what would later become Catholicism also spread among the Hungarians, the Germanic,[177] the Celtic, the Baltic and some Slavic peoples.

Around 500, St. Benedict set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries.[177] Monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe,[177] and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland, and Gaul, contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century.

In the 7th century, Muslims conquered Syria (including Jerusalem), North Africa, and Spain, converting some of the Christian population to Islam, and placing the rest under a separate legal status. Part of the Muslims’ success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire in its decades long conflict with Persia.[178] Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of Carolingian leaders, the Papacy sought greater political support in the Frankish Kingdom.[179]

The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structure and administration.[180] In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.[181] In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny.[182]

High and Late Middle Ages

Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, where he preached the First Crusade

In the West, from the 11th century onward, some older cathedral schools became universities (see, for example, University of Oxford, University of Paris and University of Bologna). Previously, higher education had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (Scholae monasticae), led by monks and nuns. Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century CE.[183] These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians.[184] The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting.[185]

Accompanying the rise of the “new towns” throughout Europe, mendicant orders were founded, bringing the consecrated religious life out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans[186] and the Dominicans,[187] founded by St. Francis and St. Dominic, respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order was the Cistercians, whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals.[188]

Christian nationalism emerged during this era in which Christians felt the impulse to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished.[189] From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the Crusades were launched.[190] These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.[191]

The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a schism between the so-called Latin or Western Christian branch (the Catholic Church),[192] and an Eastern, largely Greek, branch (the Eastern Orthodox Church). The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most notably papal primacy of jurisdiction.[193][194] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches.

In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus’ suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans’ preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers’ attention towards Jews, on whom Christians had placed the blame for Jesus’ death. Christianity’s limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290, the first of many such expulsions in Europe.[195][196]

Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against Cathar heresy,[197] various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution.[198]

Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

The Ninety-five Theses, which Luther published in 1517

Main articles: Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Post-Enlightenment

A depiction of Madonna and Child in a 19th-century Kakure Kirishitan Japanese woodcut

In the era known as the Great Divergence, when in the West, the Age of Enlightenment and the scientific revolution brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies, such as versions of socialism and liberalism.[208] Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as the dechristianization of France during the French Revolution,[209] the Spanish Civil War, and certain Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution and the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union under state atheism.[210][211][212][213]

Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of nation states after the Napoleonic era. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the University of Fribourg, looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, the Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church.[214]

The combined factors of the formation of nation states and ultramontanism, especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent,[215] often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the First Vatican Council, and in Germany would lead directly to the Kulturkampf, where liberals and Protestants under the leadership of Bismarck managed to severely restrict Catholic expression and organization.

Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own,[216] particularly in Czechia and Estonia,[217] while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general,[218][219] with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of Arabs are Christians,[220] most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon.

Demographics

Main articles: Christianity by country, Christian population growth, and Christian denominations by membership

See also: Christendom and Christian state

With around 2.4 billion adherents,[221][222] split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the world’s largest religion.[223] The Christian share of the world’s population has stood at around 33% for the last hundred years, which means that one in three persons on Earth are Christians. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Europe and North America.[224] According to a 2015 Pew Research Center study, within the next four decades, Christians will remain the world’s largest religion; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion.[225]:60

A Christian procession in Brazil, the country with the largest Catholic population in the world

Trinity Sunday in Russia; the Russian Orthodox Church has experienced a great revival since the fall of communism.

As a percentage of Christians, the Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental) are declining in parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while Protestants and other Christians are on the rise in the developing world.[226][227][228] The so-called popular Protestantism[note 6] is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world.[229][230] Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63 billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity.[231] Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics.[232] And if in 2018, the U.N. projects that Africa’s population will reach 4.5 billion by 2100 (not 2 billion as predicted in 2004), Catholicism will indeed grow, as will other religious groups.[233]

Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, and Southern Africa.[15] In Asia, it is the dominant religion in Georgia, Armenia, East Timor, and the Philippines.[234] However, it is declining in many areas including the Northern and Western United States,[235] Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain,[236] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, and the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the Christian emigration,[237][238][239] South Korea,[240] Taiwan,[241] and Macau[242]).

The Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil, the Southern United States,[243] and the province of Alberta, Canada,[244] but the percentage is decreasing. In countries such as Australia[245] and New Zealand,[246] the Christian population are declining in both numbers and percentage.

Despite the declining numbers, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western World, where 70% are Christians.[15] A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) identified themselves as Christians.[15][247][248][249] By 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had Christian majorities.[223]

However, there are many charismatic movements that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America, and Asia.[250][251][252][253][254] Since 1900, primarily due to conversion, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America.[255] From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelical Protestants grew three times the world’s population rate, and twice that of Islam.[256] A study conducted by St. Mary’s University estimated about 10.2 million Muslim converts to Christianity in 2015.[257] The results also state that significant numbers of Muslims converts to Christianity in Afghanistan,[258] Albania,[257] Azerbaijan,[259][260] Algeria,[261][262] Belgium,[263] France,[262] Germany,[264] Iran,[265] India,[262] Indonesia,[266] Malaysia,[267] Morocco,[262][268] Russia,[262] the Netherlands,[269] Saudi Arabia,[270] Tunisia,[257] Turkey,[262][271][272][273] Kazakhstan,[274] Kyrgyzstan,[257] Kosovo,[275] the United States,[276] and Central Asia.[277][278] It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in India (mostly Hindus),[279][280] and Malaysia,[281] Mongolia,[282] Nigeria,[283] Vietnam,[284] Singapore,[285] Indonesia,[286][287] China,[288] Japan,[289] and South Korea.[290]

In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.[291] Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions,[292] while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.[293] Europe’s Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion.[294] According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of European Christians say they attend services once a month or more,[295] Conversely about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians; according to the World Values Survey, about 90% of African Christians (in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwand], South Africa and Zimbabwe) said they attended church regularly.[295]

Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic),[296] Tuvalu (Reformed), Tonga (Methodist), Norway (Lutheran),[297][298][299] Costa Rica (Catholic),[300] the Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran),[301] England (Anglican),[302] Georgia (Georgian Orthodox),[303] Greece (Greek Orthodox),[304] Iceland (Lutheran),[305] Liechtenstein (Catholic),[306] Malta (Catholic),[307] Monaco (Catholic),[308] and Vatican City (Catholic).[309]

There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition and support to a specific Christian denomination.[310]

Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2010 data)[311]

Tradition	Followers	% of the Christian population	% of the world population	Follower dynamics	Dynamics in- and outside Christianity
Catholic Church	1,094,610,000	50.1	15.9	Growing	Growing
Protestantism	800,640,000	36.7	11.6	Growing	Growing
Orthodoxy	260,380,000	11.9	3.8	Growing	Declining
Other Christianity	28,430,000	1.3	0.4	Growing	Growing
Christianity	2,184,060,000	100	31.7	Growing	Stable

Regional median ages of Christians compared with overall median ages (Pew Research Center, 2010 data)[312]

	Christian median age in region (years)	Regional median age (years)
World	30	—
Sub-Saharan Africa	19	18
Latin America-Caribbean	27	27
Asia-Pacific	28	29
Middle East-North Africa	29	24
North America	39	37
Europe	42	40

The global distribution of Christians: Countries colored a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.[313]

Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple; countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink
Nations with Christianity as their state religion are in blue
Distribution of Catholics
Distribution of Protestants
Distribution of Eastern Orthodox
Distribution of Oriental Orthodox
Distribution of other Christians

Churches and denominations

Further information: List of Christian denominations, List of Christian denominations by number of members, and List of schisms in Christianity

Catholic Church

Main article: Catholic Church

Pope Francis, the current leader of the Catholic Church

The Catholic Church consists of those particular churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the pope, the bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality, and Church governance.[319][320] Like Eastern Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church, through apostolic succession, traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.[321][322] Catholics maintain that the “one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church” founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities[323][324] and works towards reconciliation among all Christians.[323] The Catholic faith is detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[325][326]

The 2,834 sees[327] are grouped into 24 particular autonomous Churches (the largest of which being the Latin Church), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering of sacraments.[328] With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian church and represents 50.1%[15] all Christians as well as one sixth of the world’s population.[329][330][331]

Eastern Orthodox Church

Main article: Eastern Orthodox Church

The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow is the tallest Eastern Orthodox Christian church in the world

The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the patriarchal sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.[332] Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches.

A number of conflicts with Western Christianity over questions of doctrine and authority culminated in the Great Schism. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 230 million adherents, although Protestants collectively outnumber them, substantially.[15][13][333]

Oriental Orthodoxy

Main article: Oriental Orthodoxy

The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called “Old Oriental” churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology.

The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India), and Armenian Apostolic churches.[334] These six churches, while being in communion with each other, are completely independent hierarchically.[335] These churches are generally not in communion with Eastern Orthodox Church, with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion.[336]

Assyrian Church of the East

A 6th-century Nestorian church, St. John the Arab, in the Assyrian village of Geramon in Hakkari, southeastern Turkey

Main article: Assyrian Church of the East

The Assyrian Church of the East, with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent Eastern Christian denomination which claims continuity from the Church of the East—in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the Chaldean Catholic Church, an Eastern Catholic church in full communion with the Pope. It is an Eastern Christian church that follows the traditional christology and ecclesiology of the historical Church of the East. Largely aniconic and not in communion with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of Syriac Christianity, and uses the East Syriac Rite in its liturgy.[337]

Its main spoken language is Syriac, a dialect of Eastern Aramaic, and the majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians. It is officially headquartered in the city of Erbil in northern Iraqi Kurdistan, and its original area also spreads into south-eastern Turkey and north-western Iran, corresponding to ancient Assyria. Its hierarchy is composed of metropolitan bishops and diocesan bishops, while lower clergy consists of priests and deacons, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the Middle East, India, North America, Oceania, and Europe (including the Caucasus and Russia).[338]

The Ancient Church of the East distinguished itself from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1964. It is one of the Assyrian churches that claim continuity with the historical Patriarchate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon—the Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia.[339]

Protestantism

Main articles: Protestantism and Proto-Protestantism

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Restorationism

Main article: Restorationism

A 19th-century drawing of Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery receiving the Aaronic priesthood from John the Baptist. Latter Day Saints believe that the Priesthood ceased to exist after the death of the Apostles and therefore needed to be restored.

The Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as restoring the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches.[359] A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the Great Apostasy.[360] In Asia, Iglesia ni Cristo is a known restorationist religion that was established during the early 1900s.

Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and upstate New York. One of the largest churches produced from the movement is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[361] American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah’s Witnesses movement and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists. Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Evangelical Christian Church in Canada,[362][363] Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and the previously mentioned Latter Day Saints movement. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.[citation needed]

Other

Various smaller Independent Catholic communities, such as the Old Catholic Church, include the word Catholic in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church, but are no longer in full communion with the Holy See.

Spiritual Christians, such as the Doukhobor and Molokan, broke from the Russian Orthodox Church and maintain close association with Mennonites and Quakers due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be peace churches due to their belief in pacifism.[364][365]

Messianic Judaism (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of “Yeshua” (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.[366]

Esoteric Christians regard Christianity as a mystery religion,[367][368] and profess the existence and possession of certain esoteric doctrines or practices,[369][370] hidden from the public but accessible only to a narrow circle of “enlightened”, “initiated”, or highly educated people.[371][372] Some of the esoteric Christian institutions include the Rosicrucian Fellowship, the Anthroposophical Society, and Martinism.

Influence on western culture

Main articles: Christian culture and Role of Christianity in civilization

Further information: Protestant culture and Christian influences in Islam

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Christian culture

Clockwise from top: Sistine chapel ceiling, Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris, Eastern Orthodox wedding, Christ the Redeemer statue, Nativity scene

Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and a large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as cultural Christians. The notion of “Europe” and the “Western World” has been intimately connected with the concept of “Christianity and Christendom”. Many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.[373]

Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.[374] Until the Age of Enlightenment,[375] Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science.[374][376] Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music, Christian literature, etc.

Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,[377] and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world, as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting.[185] Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine; many Catholic clergy,[378] Jesuits in particular,[379][380] have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the development of science.[381] Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other.[382] The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare,[383] founding hospitals,[384] economics (as the Protestant work ethic),[385][386][387] architecture,[388] politics,[389] literature,[390] personal hygiene (ablution),[391][392][393] and family life.[394][395]

Eastern Christians (particularly Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the reign of the Ummayad and the Abbasid, by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards, to Arabic.[396][397][398] They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine.[399][400][401]

Christians have made a myriad of contributions to human progress in a broad and diverse range of fields,[402] including philosophy,[403][404] science and technology,[405][406][407][408][409][410] fine arts and architecture,[411] politics, literatures, music,[412] and business.[413] According to 100 Years of Nobel Prizes a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference.[414]

Postchristianity[415] is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly in Europe, Canada, Australia, and to a minor degree the Southern Cone, in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of postmodernism. It refers to the loss of Christianity’s monopoly on values and world view in historically Christian societies.

Cultural Christians are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, music, and so on related to the religion.[citation needed]

Ecumenism

Main article: Ecumenism

Ecumenical worship service at the monastery of Taizé in France

Christian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways.[416] One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the World Evangelical Alliance founded in 1846 in London or the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia, which includes Catholics.[416]

The other way was an institutional union with united churches, a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[417] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches.[418]

The ecumenical, monastic Taizé Community is notable for being composed of more than one hundred brothers from Protestant and Catholic traditions.[419] The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, France, is named the “Church of Reconciliation”.[419] The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually.[420]

Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054;[421] the Anglican Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;[422] and some Lutheran and Catholic churches signing the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the World Methodist Council, representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration.[423]

Criticism, persecution, and apologetics

Main articles: Christian apologetics, Criticism of Christianity, and Persecution of Christians

A copy of the Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas, a famous Christian apologetic work

Criticism

Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the Apostolic Age, with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the Pharisees and scribes (e.g. Matthew 15:1–20 and Mark 7:1–23).[424] In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g. that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.[425] Additionally, a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit to the Jewish sacrifice ritual; furthermore, God is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs.[426][427] One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus, who wrote The True Word, a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society.[428][429][430] In response, the church father Origen published his treatise Contra Celsum, or Against Celsus, a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus’s criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.[431][430]

By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were atheists and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies.[432][433] The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry wrote the fifteen-volume Adversus Christianos as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of Plotinus.[434][435]

By the 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (i.e., Rabbi Moses Maimonides) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus, who had a physical body.[436] In the 19th century, Nietzsche began to write a series of polemics on the “unnatural” teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.[437] In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in Why I Am Not a Christian, formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.[438]

Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. Jewish and Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism.[439] New Testament scholar Robert M. Price has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in The Christ Myth Theory and its problems.[440]

Persecution

Main article: Persecution of Christians

Christians are one of the most persecuted religious group in the world, especially in the Middle-East, North Africa and South and East Asia.[441] In 2017, Open Doors estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to “high, very high, or extreme persecution”[442] with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians.[443][444] In 2019, a report[445][446] commissioned by the United Kingdom’s Secretary of State of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) to investigate global persecution of Christians found persecution has increased, and is highest in the Middle East, North Africa, India, China, North Korea, and Latin America, among others,[447] and that it is global and not limited to Islamic states.[446] This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians.[18]

Apologetics

Christian apologetics aims to present a rational basis for Christianity. The word “apologetic” (Greek: ἀπολογητικός apologētikos) comes from the Greek verb ἀπολογέομαι apologeomai, meaning “(I) speak in defense of”.[448] Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher Thomas Aquinas presented five arguments for God’s existence in the Summa Theologica, while his Summa contra Gentiles was a major apologetic work.[449][450] Another famous apologist, G. K. Chesterton, wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.[451][452] He pointed to the advance of Christian civilizations as proof of its practicality.[453] The physicist and priest John Polkinghorne, in his Questions of Truth, discusses the subject of religion and science, a topic that other Christian apologists such as Ravi Zacharias, John Lennox, and William Lane Craig have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the inflationary Big Bang model is evidence for the existence of God.[454]

Notes

^ It appears in the Acts of the Apostles, Acts 9:2, Acts 19:9 and Acts 19:23). Some English translations of the New Testament capitalize ‘the Way’ (e.g. the New King James Version and the English Standard Version), indicating that this was how ‘the new religion seemed then to be designated'[20] whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—’the way’,[21] ‘that way'[22] or ‘the way of the Lord’.[23] The Syriac version reads, “the way of God” and the Vulgate Latin version, “the way of the Lord”.[24]
^ a b The Latin equivalent, from which English trinity is derived,[71] is trinitas[72] though Latin also borrowed Greek trias verbatim.[73]
^ Frequently a distinction is made between “liturgical” and “non-liturgical” churches based on how elaborate or antiquated the worship; in this usage, churches whose services are unscripted or improvised are described as “non-liturgical”.[92]
^ Often these are arranged on an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary.
^ Iesous Christos Theou Hyios Soter would be a more complete transliteration; in Greek though, the daseia or spiritus asper was not—commonly—marked in the majuscule script of the time.
^ A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving directly from the Protestant Reformation.

References

^ Woodhead 2004, p. n.p harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWoodhead2004 (help)
^ “World’s largest religion by population is still Christianity”. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 27 February 2019..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:”\”””\”””‘””‘”}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png”);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg”);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png”);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg”);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png”);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg”);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png”);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg”);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}
^ S. T. Kimbrough, ed. (2005). Orthodox and Wesleyan Scriptural understanding and practice. St Vladimir’s Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-301-4.
^ Religions in Global Society. p. 146, Peter Beyer, 2006
^ Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
^ Caltron J.H Hayas, Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: “That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.”
^ Horst Hutter, University of New York, Shaping the Future: Nietzsche’s New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices (2004), p. 111: three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.
^ Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices (2004), p. 22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as “Christian” or “Judaeo- Christian” civilization.
^ Muslim-Christian Relations. Amsterdam University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-90-5356-938-2. Retrieved 18 October 2007. The enthusiasm for evangelization among the Christians was also accompanied by the awareness that the most immediate problem to solve was how to serve the huge number of new converts. Simatupang said, if the number of the Christians were double or triple, then the number of the ministers should also be doubled or tripled and the tole of the laity should be maximized and Christian service to society through schools, universities, hospitals and orphanages, should be increased. In addition, for him the Christian mission should be involved in the struggle for justice amid the process of modernization.
^ Fred Kammer (1 May 2004). Doing Faith Justice. Paulist Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-8091-4227-9. Retrieved 18 October 2007. Theologians, bishops, and preachers urged the Christian community to be as compassionate as their God was, reiterating that creation was for all of humanity. They also accepted and developed the identification of Christ with the poor and the requisite Christian duty to the poor. Religious congregations and individual charismatic leaders promoted the development of a number of helping institutions-hospitals, hospices for pilgrims, orphanages, shelters for unwed mothers-that laid the foundation for the modern “large network of hospitals, orphanages and schools, to serve the poor and society at large.”
^ Christian Church Women: Shapers of a Movement. Chalice Press. March 1994. ISBN 978-0-8272-0463-8. Retrieved 18 October 2007. In the central provinces of India they established schools, orphanages, hospitals, and churches, and spread the gospel message in zenanas.
^ “Christian Traditions”. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. 19 December 2011. About half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic (50%), while more than a third are Protestant (37%). Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the world’s Christians.
^ a b c “Status of Global Christianity, 2019, in the Context of 1900–2050″ (PDF). Center for the Study of Global Christianity.
^ Peter, Laurence (17 October 2018). “Orthodox Church split: Five reasons why it matters”. BBC. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
^ a b c d e f Analysis (19 December 2011). “Global Christianity”. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
^ Pew Research Center
^ “Christian persecution ‘at near genocide levels'”. BBC News. 3 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ a b Wintour, Patrick. “Persecution of Christians coming close to genocide’ in Middle East – report”. The Guardian. 2 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ Larry Hurtado (17 August 2017 ), “Paul, the Pagans’ Apostle”
^ Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary on Acts 19, http://biblehub.com/commentaries/jfb//acts/19.htm accessed 8 October 2015
^ Jubilee Bible 2000
^ American King James Version
^ Douai-Rheims Bible
^ Gill, J., Gill’s Exposition of the Bible, commentary on Acts 19:23 http://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/19.htm accessed 8 October 2015
^ E. Peterson (1959), “Christianus.” In: Frühkirche, Judentum und Gnosis, publisher: Herder, Freiburg, pp. 353–72
^ Elwell & Comfort 2001, pp. 266, 828.
^ Olson, The Mosaic of Christian Belief.
^ Pelikan/Hotchkiss, Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition.
^ “”We Believe in One God….”: The Nicene Creed and Mass”. Catholics United for the Fath. February 2005. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
^ Encyclopedia of Religion, “Arianism”.
^ Catholic Encyclopedia, “Council of Ephesus”.
^ Christian History Institute, First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon.
^ Peter Theodore Farrington (February 2006). “The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon”. Glastonbury Review (113). Archived from the original on 19 June 2008.
^ Pope Leo I, Letter to Flavian
^ Catholic Encyclopedia, “Athanasian Creed”.
^ a b “Our Common Heritage as Christians”. The United Methodist Church. Archived from the original on 14 January 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
^ Avis, Paul (2002) The Christian Church: An Introduction to the Major Traditions, SPCK, London, ISBN 0-281-05246-8 paperback
^ White, Howard A. The History of the Church.
^ Cummins, Duane D. (1991). A handbook for Today’s Disciples in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) (Revised ed.). St Louis, MO: Chalice Press. ISBN 978-0-8272-1425-5.
^ a b Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-7369-1289-4
^ Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible, pp. 513, 649.
^ Acts 2:24, 2:31–32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40–41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30–31, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor. 15:15, 6:14, 2 Cor. 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess. 11:10, Heb. 13:20, 1 Pet. 1:3, 1:21
^ s:Nicene Creed
^ Hanegraaff. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity.
^ “The Significance of the Death and Resurrection of Jesus for the Christian”. Australian Catholic University National. Archived from the original on 1 September 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2007.
^ John, 5:24, 6:39–40, 6:47, 10:10, 11:25–26, and 17:3
^ This is drawn from a number of sources, especially the early Creeds, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, works contained in the Book of Concord.
^ Fuller, The Foundations of New Testament Christology, p. 11.
^ A Jesus Seminar conclusion held that “in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on visionary experiences of Peter, Paul, and Mary.”
^ Funk. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?.
^ Lorenzen. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today, p. 13.
^ Ball/Johnsson (ed.). The Essential Jesus.
^ a b Eisenbaum, Pamela (Winter 2004). “A Remedy for Having Been Born of Woman: Jesus, Gentiles, and Genealogy in Romans” (PDF). Journal of Biblical Literature. 123 (4): 671–702. doi:10.2307/3268465. JSTOR 3268465. Retrieved 3 April 2009.
^ Wright, N.T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? (Oxford, 1997), p. 121.
^ CCC 846; Vatican II, Lumen Gentium 14
^ Westminster Confession, Chapter X Archived 28 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine;Spurgeon, A Defense of Calvinism Archived 10 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
^ “Grace and Justification”. Catechism of the Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 15 August 2010.
^ Definition of the Fourth Lateran Council quoted in Catechism of the Catholic Church §253.
^ Christianity’s status as monotheistic is affirmed in, among other sources, the Catholic Encyclopedia (article “Monotheism”); William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity; H. Richard Niebuhr; About.com, Monotheistic Religion resources; Kirsch, God Against the Gods; Woodhead, An Introduction to Christianity; The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Monotheism; The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, monotheism; New Dictionary of Theology, Paul, pp. 496–499; Meconi. “Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity”. pp. 111ff.
^ Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 87–90.
^ Alexander. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. pp. 514ff.
^ McGrath. Historical Theology. p. 61.
^ Metzger/Coogan. Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 782.
^ Kelly. The Athanasian Creed.
^ Oxford, “Encyclopedia of Christianity, pg1207
^ Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal Carl Parsons, Interpreting Christian Art: Reflections on Christian art, Mercer University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-86554-850-1, pp. 32–35.
^ Examples of ante-Nicene statements:Hence all the power of magic became dissolved; and every bond of wickedness was destroyed, men’s ignorance was taken away, and the old kingdom abolished God Himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal life.— St. Ignatius of Antioch in Letter to the Ephesians, ch.4, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translationWe have also as a Physician the Lord our God Jesus the Christ the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin. For ‘the Word was made flesh.’ Being incorporeal, He was in the body; being impassible, He was in a passable body; being immortal, He was in a mortal body; being life, He became subject to corruption, that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts— St. Ignatius of Antioch in Letter to the Ephesians, ch.7, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation
The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: …one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father ‘to gather all things in one,’ and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, ‘every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess; to him, and that He should execute just judgment towards all…

— St. Irenaeus in Against Heresies, ch.X, v.I, Donaldson, Sir James (1950), Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., ISBN 978-0802880871

For, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Savior Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing with water

— Justin Martyr in First Apology, ch. LXI, Donaldson, Sir James (1950), Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0802880871
^ Olson, Roger E. (2002). The Trinity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8028-4827-7.
^ Fowler. World Religions: An Introduction for Students. p. 58.
^ τριάς. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
^ Harper, Douglas. “trinity”. Online Etymology Dictionary.
^ a b trinitas. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
^ trias. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
^ Theophilus of Antioch. “Book II.15″. Apologia ad Autolycum. Patrologiae Graecae Cursus Completus (in Greek and Latin). 6. Ὡσαύτως καὶ αἱ τρεῖς ἡμέραι τῶν φωστήρων γεγονυῖαι τύποι εἰσὶν τῆς Τριάδος, τοῦ Θεοῦ, καὶ τοῦ Λόγου αὐτοῦ, καὶ τῆς Σοφίας αὐτοῦ.
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. p. 50.
^ Tertullian, “21”, De Pudicitia (in Latin), Nam et ipsa ecclesia proprie et principaliter ipse est spiritus, in quo est trinitas unius diuinitatis, Pater et Filius et Spiritus sanctus..
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 53.
^ Moltman, Jurgen. The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God. Tr. from German. Fortress Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8006-2825-X
^ Harnack, History of Dogma.
^ Pocket Dictionary of Church History Nathan P. Feldmeth p. 135 “Unitarianism. Unitarians emerged from Protestant Christian beginnings in the sixteenth century with a central focus on the unity of God and subsequent denial of the doctrine of the Trinity”
^ a b Gill, N.S. “Which Nation First Adopted Christianity?”. About.com. Retrieved 8 October 2011. Armenia is considered the first nation to have adopted Christianity as the state religion in a traditional date of c. A.D. 301.
^ Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis questions 69 through 99
^ Calvin, John. “Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25″. reformed.org. Retrieved 1 January 2008.
^ Catholic Encyclopedia, “Particular Judgment”.
^ Ott, Grundriß der Dogmatik, p. 566.
^ David Moser, What the Orthodox believe concerning prayer for the dead.
^ Ken Collins, What Happens to Me When I Die? Archived 28 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
^ “Audience of 4 August 1999″. Vatican.va. 4 August 1999. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ Catholic Encyclopedia, “The Communion of Saints”.
^ “The death that Adam brought into the world is spiritual as well as physical, and only those who gain entrance into the Kingdom of God will exist eternally. However, this division will not occur until Armageddon, when all people will be resurrected and given a chance to gain eternal life. In the meantime, “the dead are conscious of nothing.” What is God’s Purpose for the Earth?” Official Site of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Watchtower, 15 July 2002.
^ a b White 2010, pp. 71–82
^ Russell, Thomas Arthur (2010). Comparative Christianity: A Student’s Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions. Universal-Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-59942-877-2.
^ a b Justin Martyr, First Apology §LXVII
^ White 2010, p. 36
^ Witvliet, John D. (2007). The Biblical Psalms in Christian Worship: A Brief Introduction and Guide to Resources. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8028-0767-0. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
^ Wallwork, Norman (2019). “The Purpose of a Hymn Book” (PDF). Joint Liturgical Group of Great Britain. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
^ For example, The Calendar, Church of England, retrieved 25 June 2020
^ Ignazio Silone, Bread and Wine (1937).
^ Benz, Ernst (2008). The Eastern Orthodox Church: Its Thought and Life. Transaction Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-202-36575-6.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 1415.
^ “An open table: How United Methodists understand communion – The United Methodist Church”. United Methodist Church. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
^ Canon B28 of the Church of England
^ a b c Cross/Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. pp. 1435ff.
^ Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon.
^ Senn, Frank C. (2012). Introduction to Christian Liturgy. Fortress Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-4514-2433-1. For example, days of Mary, Joseph, and John the Baptist (e.g., August 15, March 19, June 24, respectively) are ranked as solemnities in the Roman Catholic calendar; in the Anglican and Lutheran calendars they are holy days or lesser festivals respectively.
^ a b Fortescue, Adrian (1912). “Christian Calendar”. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
^ Hickman. Handbook of the Christian Year.
^ “ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second | Christian Classics Ethereal Library”. Ccel.org. 1 June 2005. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
^ Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer (Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX).
^ “At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign.” (Tertullian, De Corona, chapter 3)
^ a b Dilasser. The Symbols of the Church.
^ a b Catholic Encyclopedia, “Symbolism of the Fish”.
^ “Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission” (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1213 Archived 22 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine); “Holy Baptism is the sacrament by which God adopts us as his children and makes us members of Christ’s Body, the Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of God” (Book of Common Prayer, 1979, Episcopal ); “Baptism is the sacrament of initiation and incorporation into the body of Christ” (By Water and The Spirit – The Official United Methodist Understanding of Baptism (PDF) Archived 13 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine;”As an initiatory rite into membership of the Family of God, baptismal candidates are symbolically purified or washed as their sins have been forgiven and washed away” (William H. Brackney, Doing Baptism Baptist Style – Believer’s Baptism Archived 7 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine)
^ “After the proclamation of faith, the baptismal water is prayed over and blessed as the sign of the goodness of God’s creation. The person to be baptized is also prayed over and blessed with sanctified oil as the sign that his creation by God is holy and good. And then, after the solemn proclamation of “Alleluia” (God be praised), the person is immersed three times in the water in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit” (Orthodox Church in America: Baptism). Archived 12 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine
^ “In the Orthodox Church we totally immerse, because such total immersion symbolizes death. What death? The death of the “old, sinful man”. After Baptism we are freed from the dominion of sin, even though after Baptism we retain an inclination and tendency toward evil.”, Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, article “Baptism Archived 30 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine”.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 403, 1231, 1233, 1250, 1252.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 1240.
^ “Matthew 6:9-13 Evangelical Heritage Version (EHV)”. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
^ a b Alexander, T.D.; Rosner, B.S, eds. (2001). “Prayer”. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.
^ Ferguson, S.B. & Packer, J. (1988). “Saints”. New Dictionary of Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.
^ Madeleine Gray, The Protestant Reformation, (Sussex Academic Press, 2003), p. 140.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 2559.
^ “The Book of Common Prayer”. Church of England. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
^ Virkler, Henry A. (2007). Ayayo, Karelynne Gerber (ed.). Hermeneutics: Principles and Processes of Biblical Interpretation (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8010-3138-0.
^ “Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture”. Catechism of the Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 9 September 2010.(§105–108)
^ Second Helvetic Confession, Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God
^ Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, online text
^ Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 39.
^ a b Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Misquoting Jesus: the story behind who changed the Bible and why. San Francisco: Harper ISBN 978-0060738174 pp. 183, 209
^ “1 Timothy 2:11–12 NIV – A woman should learn in quietness and”. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
^ “1 Corinthians 14:34–35 NIV – Women should remain silent in the”. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
^ “1 corinthians 11:2–16 NIV – On Covering the Head in Worship – I”. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
^ Wright, N.T. (1992). The New Testament and the People of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. pp. 435–443. ISBN 978-0-8006-2681-5.
^ “The Gospel of Thomas Collection – Translations and Resources”. Gnosis.org. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
^ “Luke 17:20–21 NIV – The Coming of the Kingdom of God”. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
^ “Reflections on religions”. Mmnet.com.au. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
^ Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 69–78.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture § 115–118. Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
^ Thomas Aquinas, “Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses” Archived 6 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116 Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
^ Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19) Archived 31 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, “The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture” § 113. Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, “The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith” § 85. Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
^ Keith A. Mathison (2001). “Introduction”. The Shape of Sola Scriptura. Canon Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-885767-74-5.
^ a b Foutz, Scott David. “Martin Luther and Scripture”. Quodlibet Journal. Archived from the original on 14 April 2000. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
^ John Calvin, Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles 2 Peter 3:14–18
^ Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28.
^ Sproul. Knowing Scripture, pp. 45–61; Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (article 6).
^ a b Elwell, Walter A. (1984). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House. p. 565. ISBN 978-0-8010-3413-8.
^ Johnson, Elliott (1990). Expository hermeneutics : an introduction. Grand Rapids Mich.: Academie Books. ISBN 978-0-310-34160-4.
^ Terry, Milton (1974). Biblical hermeneutics : a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids Mich.: Zondervan Pub. House. p. 205. (1890 edition page 103, view1, view2)
^ e.g., in his commentary on Matthew 1 (§III.1). Matthew Henry interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and Jewish Christians. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion.
^ “Monastère de Mor Mattai – Mossul – Irak” (in French). Archived from the original on 3 March 2014.
^ Catherine Cory (13 August 2015). Christian Theological Tradition. Routledge. p. 20 and forwards. ISBN 978-1-317-34958-7.
^ Stephen Benko (1984). Pagan Rome and the Early Christians. Indiana University Press. p. 22 and forwards. ISBN 978-0-253-34286-7.
^ McGrath, Alister E. (2006), Christianity: An Introduction, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 174, ISBN 1-4051-0899-1
^ Seifrid, Mark A. (1992). “‘Justification by Faith’ and The Disposition of Paul’s Argument”. Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme. Novum Testamentum. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 210–211, 246–247. ISBN 90-04-09521-7. ISSN 0167-9732.
^ Wylen, Stephen M., The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction, Paulist Press (1995), ISBN 0-8091-3610-4, Pp. 190-192.; Dunn, James D.G., Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999), ISBN 0-8028-4498-7, Pp. 33–34.; Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander, The Romans: From Village to Empire, Oxford University Press (2004), ISBN 0-19-511875-8, p. 426.
^ Michael Whitby, et al. eds. Christian Persecution, Martyrdom and Orthodoxy (2006) online edition
^ Eusebius of Caesarea, the author of Ecclesiastical History in the 4th century, states that St. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e. 41 or 43 AD. “Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity” Otto F.A. Meinardus p. 28.
^ Neil Lettinga. “A History of the Christian Church in Western North Africa”. Archived from the original on 30 July 2001.
^ “Allaboutreligion.org”. Allaboutreligion.org. Archived from the original on 16 November 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ “The World Factbook: Armenia”. CIA. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
^ Brunner, Borgna (2006). Time Almanac with Information Please 2007. New York: Time Home Entertainment. p. 685. ISBN 978-1-933405-49-0.
^ Theo Maarten van Lint (2009). “The Formation of Armenian Identity in the First Millennium”. Church History and Religious Culture. 89 (1/3): 269.
^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 38. ISBN 9781474254670.
^ Chidester, David (2000). Christianity: A Global History. HarperOne. p. 91.
^ Ricciotti 1999
^ Theodosian Code XVI.i.2, in: Bettenson. Documents of the Christian Church. p. 31.
^ Burbank, Jane; Copper, Frederick (2010). Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 64.
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^ González 1984, pp. 305, 310ff., 316ff
^ González 1984, pp. 321–323, 365ff
^ Parole de l’Orient, Volume 30. Université Saint-Esprit. 2005. p. 488.
^ González 1984, pp. 292–300
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^ A general overview about the English discussion is given in Coffey, Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689.
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^ “Who We Are: A Quick Visual Guide”. Mennonite Church US. 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2018. Anabaptists: We are neither Catholic nor Protestant, but we share ties to those streams of Christianity. We cooperate as a sign of our unity in Christ and in ways that extend the reign of God’s Kingdom on earth. We are known as “Anabaptists” (not anti-Baptist)—meaning “rebaptizers.”
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^ This branch was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word Reformed. It includes Presbyterians and Congregationalists.
^ World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches: “Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition “per se” has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between “evangelical” and “mainline” are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities.”
^ Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to “the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed.” (MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History, p. xxiv.)
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^ Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick (2006). Children’s Health Issues in Historical Perspective. Veronica Strong-Boag. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 315. ISBN 9780889209121. … From Fleming’s perspective, the transition to Christianity required a good dose of personal and public hygiene …
^ Encyclopædia Britannica The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage
^ Rawson, Beryl Rawson (2010). A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds. John Wiley & Sons. p. 111. ISBN 9781444390759. …Christianity placed great emphasis on the family and on all members from children to the aged…
^ Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. ISBN 0-7486-0455-3, p. 4
^ Brague, Rémi (2009). The Legend of the Middle Ages. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-226-07080-3.
^ Kitty Ferguson (2011). Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe. Icon Books Limited. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-84831-250-0. It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language
^ Kaser, Karl (2011). The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 135. ISBN 978-3-643-50190-5.
^ Rémi Brague, Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization
^ Britannica, Nestorian
^ “Religion of History’s 100 Most Influential People”.
^ “Religion of Great Philosophers”.
^ A. Spinello, Richard (2012). The Encyclicals of John Paul II: An Introduction and Commentary. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 147. ISBN 1442219424. … The insights of Christian philosophy “would not have happened without the direct or indirect contribution of Christian faith” (FR 76). Typical Christian philosophers include St. Augustine, St. Bonaventure, and St. Thomas Aquinas. The benefits derived from Christian philosophy are twofold….
^ Gilley, Sheridan (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities C.1815-c.1914. Brian Stanley. Cambridge University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0521814561. … Many of the scientists who contributed to these developments were Christians…
^ Steane, Andrew (2014). Faithful to Science: The Role of Science in Religion. OUP Oxford. p. 179. ISBN 0191025135. … the Christian contribution to science has been uniformly at the top level, but it has reached that level and it has been sufficiently strong overall …
^ “Christian Influences in the Sciences”. rae.org. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
^ “World’s Greatest Creation Scientists from Y1K to Y2K”. creationsafaris.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2016.
^ “100 Scientists Who Shaped World History”.
^ “50 Nobel Laureates and Other Great Scientists Who Believe in God”. Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin and James Clerk Maxwell.
^ “Religious Affiliation of the World’s Greatest Artists”.
^ Hall, p. 100.
^ “Wealthy 100 and the 100 Most Influential in Business”.
^ Baruch A. Shalev, 100 Years of Nobel Prizes (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religions. Most (65%) have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. ISBN 978-0935047370
^ G.C. Oosthuizen. Postchristianity in Africa. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd (1968). ISBN 0-903983-05-2
^ a b McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, pp. 581–584.
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. pp. 413ff.
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 498.
^ a b The Oxford companion to Christian thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2000. p. 694. ISBN 978-0-19-860024-4.
^ Oxford, “Encyclopedia of Christianity, p. 307.
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 373.
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 583.
^ “Methodist Statement” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 p. 175
^ Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135 by James D.G. Dunn 1999 ISBN 0-8028-4498-7 pp. 112–113
^ Asher Norman Twenty-six Reasons why Jews Don’t Believe in Jesus Feldheim Publishers 2007 ISBN 978-0-977-19370-7 p. 11
^ Keith Akers The Lost Religion of Jesus: Simple Living and Nonviolence in Early Christianity. Lantern Books 2000 ISBN 978-1-930-05126-3 p. 103
^ Ferguson, Everett (1993). Backgrounds of Early Christianity (second ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 562–564. ISBN 978-0-8028-0669-7.
^ Thomas, Stephen (2004). “Celsus”. In McGuckin, John Anthony (ed.). The Westminster Handbook to Origen. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 978-0-664-22472-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ a b Olson, Roger E. (1999), The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform, Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, p. 101, ISBN 978-0-8308-1505-0CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ McGuckin, John Anthony (2004). “The Scholarly Works of Origen”. The Westminster Handbook to Origen. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-0-664-22472-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ Ferguson, Everett (1993). Backgrounds of Early Christianity (second ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 556–561. ISBN 978-0-8028-0669-7.
^ Sherwin-White, A.N. (April 1964). “Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted? – An Amendment”. Past and Present. 27 (27): 23–27. doi:10.1093/past/27.1.23. JSTOR 649759.
^ The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 1 by George Thomas Kurian and James Smith 2010 ISBN 0-8108-6987-X p. 527
^ Apologetic Discourse and the Scribal Tradition by Wayne Campbell Kannaday 2005 ISBN 90-04-13085-3 pp. 32–33
^ A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations by Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn 2005 ISBN 0-521-82692-6 p. 168
^ The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche by Bernd Magnus, Kathleen Marie Higgins 1996 ISBN 0-521-36767-0 pp. 90–93
^ Russell on Religion: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell by Bertrand Russell, Stefan Andersson and Louis Greenspan 1999 ISBN 0-415-18091-0 pp. 77–87
^ Christianity: An Introduction by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 1-4051-0899-1 pp. 125–126.
^ ” The Christ Myth Theory and its Problems “, published 2011 by American Atheist press, Cranford, NJ, ISBN 1-57884-017-1
^ Kaplan, S. (1 January 2005). “”Religious Nationalism”: A Textbook Case from Turkey”. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. 25 (3): 665–676. doi:10.1215/1089201x-25-3-665. ISSN 1089-201X.
^ Weber, Jeremy. “‘Worst year yet’: the top 50 countries where it’s hardest to be a Christian”. Christianity Today. 11 January 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ Enos, Olivia. “North Korea is the world’s worst persecutor of Christians”. Forbes. 25 January 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ Worldwatchlist2020, Most dangerous countries for Christians. “Serving Persecuted Christians – Open Doors USA”. www.opendoorsusa.org. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
^ Mounstephen, Philip. “Interim report”. Bishop of Truro’s Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians. April 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ a b Mounstephen, Philip. “Final Report and Recommendations”. Bishop of Truro’s Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians. July 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ Kay, Barbara. “Our politicians may not care, but Christians are under siege across the world”. National Post. 8 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ ἀπολογητικός, ἀπολογέομαι in Liddell and Scott.
^ Dulles, Avery Robert Cardinal (2005). A History of Apologetics. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-89870-933-9.
^ L Russ Bush, ed. (1983). Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-310-45641-4.
^ “Why I Believe in Christianity – Society of Gilbert Keith Chesterton”.
^ Hauser, Chris (History major, Dartmouth College class of 2014) (Fall 2011). “Faith and Paradox: G.K. Chesterton’s Philosophy of Christian Paradox”. The Dartmouth Apologia: A Journal of Christian Thought. 6 (1): 16–20. Retrieved 29 March 2015.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ “Christianity”. 6 December 2010.
^ Howson, Colin (2011). Objecting to God. Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-1139498562. Nor is the agreement coincidental, according to a substantial constituency of religious apologists, who regard the inflationary Big Bang model as direct evidence for God. John Lennox, a mathematician at the University of Oxford, tells us that ‘even if the non-believers don’t like it, the Big Bang fits in exactly with the Christian narrative of creation’. … William Lane Craig is another who claims that the Biblical account is corroborated by Big Bang cosmology. Lane Craig also claims that there is a prior proof that there is a God who created this universe.

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Christianity at Curlie
“Christianity”. Encyclopædia Britannica
Religion & Ethics – Christianity A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the BBC

v t e Jesus
Historicity	Chronology of Jesus Genealogy of Jesus Historical Jesus Quest for the historical Jesus sources Josephus on Jesus Tacitus mention Mara bar Serapion letter Historicity Gospels race and appearance
Life events	Nativity Virgin birth Mary Joseph Flight into Egypt Childhood Unknown years Baptism Temptation Apostles selecting Great Commission Ministry disciples Sermon on the Mount/Plain Beatitudes Prayers Lord’s Prayer Parables Miracles Transfiguration Homelessness Great Commandment Olivet Discourse Anointing Passion Entry into Jerusalem Last Supper Farewell Discourse Agony in the garden Arrest Trial Crucifixion sayings on the cross Tomb Resurrection appearances Ascension
New Testament	Gospels Matthew Mark Luke John Gospel harmony Oral gospel traditions Five Discourses of Matthew Life of Jesus in the New Testament Historical background of the New Testament New Testament places associated with Jesus Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament
Culture	Language of Jesus
Depictions	Bibliography Artworks statues Films
Christianity	Christ Christianity timeline 1st century Christology Jesus in Christianity pre-existence incarnation Relics associated with Jesus Scholastic Lutheran Christology Second Coming Session of Christ
Related	Brothers of Jesus Christ myth theory Contemporaries rejection of Jesus Cosmic Christ Criticism Date of birth Holy Family Jesus’ interactions with women Mary Magdalene Jesuism Jesus in comparative mythology Jesus in Islam Ahmadiyya Jesus in Scientology Jesus the Splendour Judaism’s view of Jesus in the Talmud Master Jesus Mental health Religious perspectives on Jesus

Patriarchates in Christianity

Traditional ecclesiastical jurisidictions of primates in Christianity, sorted according to earliest apostolic legacy (branched where multiple denominational claimants) Legend: in bold blue: Catholic Church, light blue: Eastern Orthodox Church, green: Oriental Orthodoxy, italic: Nestorianism

EarlyChristianity(Antiquity)(30–325/476)

Pentarchy(fiveapostolicsees*,as orderedby theCouncilof Ephesusin 431)

Patriarch of Rome (1st century)	Holy See (since 1st century)
Patriarch of Constantinople (451)	Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (since 330) Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople (1204-1964) Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople (since 1461)
Patriarch of Antioch (1st century)	Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch (since 518) Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch (since 518) Maronite Patriarchate (since 685) Syriac Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch (since 1668) Melkite Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch (since 1724) Latin Patriarchate of Antioch (1099-1964)
Patriarch of Alexandria (1st century)	Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria (since 451) · Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria (since 451) · Latin Patriarchate of Alexandria (1219-1964) · Coptic Catholic Patriarchate of Alexandria (since 1824)
Patriarch of Jerusalem (451)	Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem (since 451) · Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem (since 638) · Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem (since 1099)

Other

Patriarch of Carthage (2nd century-1076)	Latin Catholic titular episcopate (1518-1964) · Archbishop of Tunis (since 1884)
Patriarch of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (280-1552)	Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon (since 1553) Assyrian Church of the East Patriarchateof Seleucia-Ctesiphon (since 1830) Ancient Church of the East Patriarchateof Seleucia-Ctesiphon (since 1968)
Patriarch of Cilicia (294)	Catholicos of All Armenians (since 301) Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia (since 1058) Patriarchate of Cilicia (since 1742)

Middle Ages(476–1517)

Patriarchate of Aquileia (568-1751)
Patriarchate of Grado (725-1451)
Patriarchate of Bulgaria (since 919)
Patriarchate of Georgia (since 1010)
Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Peć (since 1346)
Patriarchate of Venice (since 1451)

Early Modern era(1517-1789)

Patriarchate of the West Indies (since 1524)
Latin Patriarchate of Ethiopia (1555-1663)
Patriarchate of the East Indies (since 1572)
Patriarchate of Moscow (since 1589)
Patriarchate of Lisbon (since 1716)

Late Modern era(1789–present)

Malankara Orthodox Syrian Catholicos of the East (since 1912)
Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate (since 1922)
Patriarchate of Romania (since 1925)
Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarchate of Ethiopia (since 1988)
Patriarchate of Kiev (1992–2018; 2019–)
Eritrean Orthodox Patriarchate of Eritrea (since 1994)

Apostolic sees:¨
Rome: Peter, Paul
Constantinople: Andrew
Antioch: Peter
Alexandria: Mark
Jerusalem: James
Babylon: Thomas, Bartholomew, and Thaddeus
Cilicia: Bartholomew, and Jude
Christianity portal

History of Christianity

Centuries

1st • 2nd • 3rd • 4th • 5th • 6th • 7th • 8th • 9th • 10th • 11th • 12th • 13th • 14th • 15th • 16th • 17th • 18th • 19th • 20th • 21st

Origins andApostolic Age

Background
Jesus
- Baptism
- Ministry
- Crucifixion
- Resurrection
- Great Commission
Holy Spirit
Apostles
Paul the Apostle
Council of Jerusalem
Split with Judaism
New Testament
- Gospels
- Acts
- Pauline epistles
- General epistles
- Revelation

Ante-Niceneperiod

Diversity
- Arianism
- Donatism
- Marcionism
- Montanism
Canon development
Persecution
Church / Apostolic Fathers
- Pope Clement I
- Polycarp
- Ignatius
- Irenaeus
- Justin Martyr
- Tertullian
- Origen

Late antiquity(Great Church)

Constantine
- Constantinian shift
Monasticism
Councils
Nicaea I
- Nicene Creed
Athanasius
Jerome
Augustine
Constantinople I
Ephesus I
Chalcedon
Biblical canon

EasternChristianity

Eastern Orthodoxy
Church of the East
Oriental Orthodoxy
Chrysostom
Nestorianism
Icons
- Iconoclasm
Great Schism
Fall of Constantinople
Armenia
Georgia
Greece
Egypt
Syria
Ethiopia
Bulgaria
Ottoman Empire
Russia
America

Catholicism

Papacy
- Development of primacy
- Eastern Orthodox opposition
Lateran IV
Art patronage of Julius II
Leo X
Counter-Reformation
- Trent
- Art
- Catholic Reformation
- Jesuits
  - Xavier
Thomas More
Monastery dissolution
Wars
Mass rocks and priest holes
Guadalupe
Jansenists
Molinists
Neo-Scholasticism
Teresa
Modernism
Independent Catholics
Vatican I and Vatican II
- Ecclesial community
Timeline

Middle Ages

Pelagianism
Gregory I
Celtic
Germanic
Scandinavian
Kievan Rus’
Investiture
Anselm
Abelard
Bernard
Bogomils
Bosnian
Cathars
Apostolic Brethren
Dulcinian
Crusades
Waldensians
Inquisition
Early Scholasticism
Christian mysticism
Dominic
Francis
Bonaventure
Aquinas
- Five Ways
Wycliffe
Avignon
Papal Schism
Bohemian Reformation
Hus
Conciliarism
- Synods

ReformationandProtestantism

Erasmus
Eucharist
Calvinist–Arminian debate
Arminianism
Wars
- Resistance theories
Separation of church and state
Nicodemites
Hymnody of continental Europe
Formal and material principles
Literature
Protestant work ethic

Lutheranism	Luther 95 Theses Diet of Worms Theology Bible Melanchthon Book of Concord Orthodoxy Scholasticism Eucharist Art
Calvinism	Zwingli Calvin Huguenots Presbyterianism Scotland Knox TULIP Baptism Law and Gospel Dort Three Forms of Unity Westminster Scholasticism Metrical psalters
Anglicanism	Timeline Henry VIII Cranmer Elizabethan 39 Articles Puritans Civil War Church music Book of Common Prayer King James Version
Anabaptism	Theology Radical Reformation Grebel Swiss Brethren Müntzer Martyrs’ Synod Menno Simons Smyth Martyrs Mirror Ausbund

1640–1789

Revivalism
Missionaries
Baptists
- Separation of church and state
Edicts of toleration
Congregationalism
First Great Awakening
Methodism
Millerism
Pietism
- Fostering of early experimental science
Neo- and Old Lutherans

1789–present

Camp meeting
Holiness movement
Second Great Awakening
Restorationists
Jehovah’s Witnesses
Mormonism
Seventh-day Adventist
Adventism
Oxford Movement
Laestadianism
Finnish Awakening
Christian existentialism
Third Great Awakening
Azusa Revival
Gospel music
Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy
Pacifism
Ecumenism
Five solae
Jesus movement
Pentecostalism
Charismatics
Liberation theology
Reformed epistemology
Fourth Great Awakening
Evangelical and Mainline Protestants
Christian right and left
Persecution by ISIL

Timeline
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Christianity

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Marcus Garvey

bear — Sat, 13 Jun 2020 09:26:25 +0000

Marcus Garvey
Garvey photographed in 1924
Born	(1887-08-17)17 August 1887Saint Ann’s Bay, Jamaica
Died	10 June 1940(1940-06-10) (aged 52)West Kensington, London, England, United Kingdom
Alma mater	Birkbeck, University of London
Occupation	Publisher, journalist
Known for	Activism, black nationalism, Pan-Africanism
Spouse(s)	Amy Ashwood(m. 1919; div. 1922) Amy Jacques (m. 1922)
Children	2
Parent(s)	Marcus Mosiah Garvey Sr.Sarah Anne Richards

H.E. The Right Honourable Marcus Mosiah Garvey Jr. ONH (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940) was a Jamaican political activist, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator. He was the founder and first President-General of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL, commonly known as UNIA), through which he declared himself Provisional President of Africa. Ideologically a black nationalist and Pan-Africanist, his ideas came to be known as Garveyism.

Garvey was born to a moderately prosperous Afro-Jamaican family in Saint Ann’s Bay, Colony of Jamaica and apprenticed into the print trade as a teenager. Working in Kingston, he became involved in trade unionism before living briefly in Costa Rica, Panama, and England. Returning to Jamaica, he founded UNIA in 1914. In 1916, he moved to the United States and established a UNIA branch in New York City’s Harlem district. Emphasising unity between Africans and the African diaspora, he campaigned for an end to European colonial rule across Africa and the political unification of the continent. He envisioned a unified Africa as a one-party state, governed by himself, that would enact laws to ensure black racial purity. Although he never visited the continent, he was committed to the Back-to-Africa movement, arguing that many African-Americans should migrate there. Garveyist ideas became increasingly popular and UNIA grew in membership. However, his black separatist views—and his collaboration with white racists such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) to advance their shared interest in racial separatism—divided Garvey from other prominent African-American civil rights activists such as W. E. B. Du Bois who promoted racial integration.

Committed to the belief that African-Americans needed to secure financial independence from white-dominant society, Garvey launched various businesses in the U.S., including the Negro Factories Corporation and Negro World newspaper. In 1919, he became President of the Black Star Line shipping and passenger company, designed to forge a link between North America and Africa and facilitate African-American migration to Liberia. In 1923 Garvey was convicted of mail fraud for selling the company’s stock and imprisoned in the United States Penitentiary Atlanta for nearly two years. Many commentators have argued that the trial was politically motivated; Garvey blamed Jewish people, claiming that they were prejudiced against him because of his links to the KKK. Deported to Jamaica in 1927, where he settled in Kingston with his wife Amy Jacques, Garvey continued his activism and established the People’s Political Party in 1929, briefly serving as a city councillor. With UNIA in increasing financial difficulty, in 1935 he relocated to London, where his anti-socialist stance distanced him from many of the city’s black activists. He died there in 1940, although in 1964 his body was returned to Jamaica for reburial in Kingston’s National Heroes Park.

Garvey was a controversial figure. Some in the African diasporic community regarded him as a pretentious demagogue and were highly critical of his collaboration with white supremacists, his violent rhetoric, and his prejudice against mixed-race people and Jews. He nevertheless received praise for encouraging a sense of pride and self-worth among Africans and the African diaspora amid widespread poverty, discrimination, and colonialism. He is seen as a national hero in Jamaica, and his ideas exerted a considerable influence on such movements as Rastafari, the Nation of Islam, and the Black Power Movement.

1 Early life
- 1.1 Childhood: 1887–1904
- 1.2 Early career in Kingston: 1905–1909
- 1.3 Travels abroad: 1910–1914
2 Organization of UNIA
- 2.1 Forming UNIA: 1914–1916
- 2.2 To the United States: 1916–1918
- 2.3 The growth of UNIA: 1918–1921
  - 2.3.1 Success and obstacles
  - 2.3.2 Assassination attempts, marriage, and divorce
  - 2.3.3 The Black Star Line
- 2.4 Criminal charges: 1922–1923
- 2.5 Trial: 1923
  - 2.5.1 Out on bail: 1923–1925
- 2.6 Imprisonment: 1925–1927
3 Later years
- 3.1 Back to Jamaica: 1927–1935
- 3.2 Life in London: 1935–1940
- 3.3 Death and burial: 1940
4 Ideology
- 4.1 Racial separatism
- 4.2 Pan-Africanism
- 4.3 Economic views
- 4.4 Black Christianity
5 Personality and personal life
6 Reception and legacy
- 6.1 Influence on political movements
- 6.2 Influence on religious movements
- 6.3 Memorials
7 See also
8 References
- 8.1 Footnotes
- 8.2 Sources
9 Further reading
- 9.1 Works by Garvey
- 9.2 Books
10 External links

Early life

Childhood: 1887–1904

A statue of Garvey now stands in Saint Ann’s Bay, the town where he was born

Marcus Mosiah Garvey was born on 17 August 1887 in Saint Ann’s Bay, a town in the Colony of Jamaica.[1] In the context of colonial Jamaican society, which had a colourist social hierarchy, Garvey was considered at the lowest end, being a black child who believed he was of full African ancestry;[2] later genetic research nevertheless revealed that he had some Iberian ancestors.[3] Garvey’s paternal great-grandfather had been born into slavery prior to its abolition in the British Empire.[4] His surname, which was of Irish origin, had been inherited from his family’s former owners.[4]

His father, Malchus Garvey, was a stonemason;[5] his mother, Sarah Richards, was a domestic servant and the daughter of peasant farmers.[6] Malchus had had two previous partners before Sarah, siring six children between them.[7] Sarah bore him four additional children, of whom Marcus was the youngest, although two died in infancy.[7] Because of his profession, Malchus’ family were wealthier than many of their peasant neighbours;[8] they were petty bourgeoise.[9] Malchus was however reckless with his money and over the course of his life lost most of the land he owned to meet payments.[10] Malchus had a book collection and was self-educated;[11] he also served as an occasional layman at a local Wesleyan church.[12] Malchus was an intolerant and punitive father and husband;[13] he never had a close relationship with his son.[14]

Up to the age of 14, Garvey attended a local church school; further education was unaffordable for the family.[15] When not in school, Garvey worked on his maternal uncle’s tenant farm.[16] He had friends, with whom he once broke the windows of a church, resulting in his arrest.[17] Some of his friends were white, although he found that as they grew older they distanced themselves from him;[18] he later recalled that a close childhood friend was a white girl: “We were two innocent fools who never dreamed of a race feeling and problem.”[9] In 1901, Marcus was apprenticed to his godfather, a local printer.[19] In 1904, the printer opened another branch at Port Maria, where Garvey began to work, traveling from Saint Ann’s Bay each morning.[20]

Early career in Kingston: 1905–1909

In 1905 he moved to Kingston, where he boarded in Smith Village, a working-class neighbourhood.[20] In the city, he secured work with the printing division of the P.A. Benjamin Manufacturing Company. He rose quickly through the company ranks, becoming their first Afro-Jamaican foreman.[21] His sister and mother, by this point estranged from his father, moved to join him in the city.[22] In January 1907, Kingston was hit by an earthquake that reduced much of the city to rubble.[23] He, his mother, and his sister were left to sleep in the open for several months.[24] In March 1908, his mother died.[22] While in Kingston, Garvey converted to Roman Catholicism.[25]

Garvey became a trade unionist and took a leading role in the November 1908 print workers’ strike. The strike was broken several weeks later and Garvey was sacked.[26] Henceforth branded a troublemaker, Garvey was unable to find work in the private sector.[27] He then found temporary employment with a government printer.[28] As a result of these experiences, Garvey became increasingly angry at the inequalities present in Jamaican society.[29]

Garvey involved himself with the National Club, Jamaica’s first nationalist organization, becoming its first assistant secretary in April 1910.[30] The group campaigned to remove the British Governor of Jamaica, Sydney Olivier, from office, and to end the migration of Indian “coolies”, or indentured workers, to Jamaica, as they were seen as a source of economic competition by the established population.[31] With fellow Club member Wilfred Domingo he published a pamphlet expressing the group’s ideas, The Struggling Mass.[31] In early 1910, Garvey began publishing a magazine, Garvey’s Watchman—its name a reference to George William Gordon’s The Watchman—although it only lasted three issues.[32] He claimed it had a circulation of 3000, although this was likely an exaggeration.[33] Garvey also enrolled in elocution lessons with the radical journalist Robert J. Love, whom Garvey came to regard as a mentor.[34] With his enhanced skill at speaking in a Standard English manner, he entered several public speaking competitions.[35]

Travels abroad: 1910–1914

Economic hardship in Jamaica led to growing emigration from the island.[36] In mid-1910, Garvey travelled to Costa Rica, where an uncle had secured him employment as a timekeeper on a large banana plantation in the Limón Province owned by the United Fruit Company (UFC).[37] Shortly after his arrival, the area experienced strikes and unrest in opposition to the UFC’s attempts to cut its workers’ wages.[38] Although as a timekeeper he was responsible for overseeing the manual workers, he became increasingly angered at how they were treated.[39] In the spring of 1911 be launched a bilingual newspaper, Nation/La Nación, which criticised the actions of the UFC and upset many of the dominant strata of Costa Rican society in Limón.[40] His coverage of a local fire, in which he questioned the motives of the fire brigade, resulted in him being brought in for police questioning.[41] After his printing press broke, he was unable to replace the faulty part and terminated the newspaper.[42]

In London, Garvey spent time in the Reading Room of the British Museum

Garvey then travelled through Central America, undertaking casual work as he made his way through Honduras, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.[43] While in the port of Colón in Panama, he set up a new newspaper, La Prensa (“The Press”).[44] In 1911, he became seriously ill with a bacterial infection and decided to return to Kingston.[45] He then decided to travel to London, the administrative centre of the British Empire, in the hope of advancing his informal education. In the spring of 1912 he sailed to England.[46] Renting a room along Borough High Street in South London,[47] he visited the House of Commons, where he was impressed by the politician David Lloyd George.[47] He also visited Speakers’ Corner in Hyde Park and began speaking there.[48] There were only a few thousand black people in London at the time, and they were often viewed as exotic; most worked as labourers.[49] Garvey initially gained piecemeal work labouring in the city’s docks.[50] In August 1912, his sister Indiana joined him in London, where she worked as a domestic servant.[51]

In early 1913 he was employed as a messenger and handyman for the African Times and Orient Review, a magazine based in Fleet Street that was edited by Dusé Mohamed Ali.[52] The magazine advocated Ethiopianism and home rule for British-occupied Egypt.[53] In 1914, Mohamed Ali began employing Garvey’s services as a writer for the magazine.[54] He also took several evening classes in law at Birkbeck College in Bloomsbury.[55] Garvey planned a tour of Europe, spending time in Glasgow, Paris, Monte Carlo, Boulogne, and Madrid.[56] During the trip, he was briefly engaged to a Spanish-Irish heiress.[57] Back in London, he wrote an article on Jamaica for the Tourist magazine,[58] and spent time reading in the library of the British Museum. There he discovered Up from Slavery, a book by the African-American entrepreneur and activist Booker T. Washington.[59] Washington’s book heavily influenced him.[60] Now almost financially destitute and deciding to return to Jamaica, he unsuccessfully asked both the Colonial Office and the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines’ Protection Society to pay for his journey.[61] After managing to save the funds for a fare, he boarded the SS Trent in June 1914 for a three-week journey across the Atlantic.[62] En route home, Garvey talked with an Afro-Caribbean missionary who had spent time in Basutoland and taken a Basuto wife. Discovering more about colonial Africa from this man, Garvey began to envision a movement that would politically unify black people of African descent across the world.[63]

Organization of UNIA

Forming UNIA: 1914–1916

To the cultured mind the bulk of our [i.e. black] people are contemptible[…] Go into the country parts of Jamaica and you will see there villainy and vice of the worst kind, immorality, obeah and all kinds of dirty things[…] Kingston and its environs are so infested with the uncouth and vulgar of our people that we of the cultured class feel positively ashamed to move about. Well, this society [UNIA] has set itself the task to go among the people[…] and raise them to the standard of civilised approval.

— Garvey, from a 1915 Collegiate Hall speech published in the Daily Chronicle[64]

Garvey arrived back in Jamaica in July 1914.[65] There, he saw his article for Tourist republished in The Gleaner.[66] He began earning money selling greeting and condolence cards which he had imported from Britain, before later switching to selling tombstones.[67]

Also in July 1914, Garvey launched the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League, commonly abbreviated as UNIA.[68] Adopting the motto of “One Aim. One God. One Destiny”,[69] it declared its commitment to “establish a brotherhood among the black race, to promote a spirit of race pride, to reclaim the fallen and to assist in civilising the backward tribes of Africa.”[70] Initially, it had only few members.[71] Many Jamaicans were critical of the group’s prominent use of the term “Negro”, a term which was often employed as an insult:[70] Garvey, however, embraced the term in reference to black people of African descent.[72]

Garvey became UNIA’s president and travelling commissioner;[73] it was initially based out of his hotel room in Orange Street, Kingston.[66] It portrayed itself not as a political organization but as a charitable club,[74] focused on work to help the poor and to ultimately establish a vocational training college modelled on Washington’s Tuskegee Institute in Alabama.[75] Garvey wrote to Washington and received a brief, if encouraging reply; Washington died shortly after.[76] UNIA officially expressed its loyalty to the British Empire, King George V, and the British effort in the ongoing First World War.[77] In April 1915 Brigadier General L. S. Blackden lectured to the group on the war effort;[78] Garvey endorsed Blackden’s calls for more Jamaicans to sign up to fight for the Empire on the Western Front.[78] The group also sponsored musical and literary evenings as well as a February 1915 elocution contest, at which Garvey took first prize.[79]

In August 1914, Garvey attended a meeting of the Queen Street Baptist Literary and Debating Society, where he met Amy Ashwood, recently graduated from the Westwood Training College for Women.[80] She joined UNIA and rented a better premises for them to use as their headquarters, secured using her father’s credit.[81] She and Garvey embarked on a relationship, which was opposed by her parents. In 1915 they secretly became engaged.[67] When she suspended the engagement, he threatened to commit suicide, at which she resumed it.[82]

I was openly hated and persecuted by some of these colored men of the island who did not want to be classified as Negroes but as white.

— Garvey, on how he was received in Jamaica[83]

Garvey attracted financial contributions from many prominent patrons, including the Mayor of Kingston and the Governor of Jamaica, William Manning.[84] By appealing directly to Jamaica’s white elite, Garvey had skipped the brown middle-classes, comprising those who were classified as mulattos, quadroons, and octoroons. They were generally hostile to Garvey, regarding him as a pretentious social climber and being annoyed at his claim to be part of the “cultured class” of Jamaican society.[85] Many also felt that he was unnecessarily derogatory when describing black Jamaicans, with letters of complaint being sent into the Daily Chronicle after it published one of Garvey’s speeches in which he referred to many of his people as “uncouth and vulgar”.[86] One complainant, a Dr Leo Pink, related that “the Jamaican Negro can not be reformed by abuse”.[64] After unsubstantiated allegations began circling that Garvey was diverting UNIA funds to pay for his own personal expenses, the group’s support began to decline.[87] He became increasingly aware of how UNIA had failed to thrive in Jamaica and decided to migrate to the United States, sailing there aboard the SS Tallac in March 1916.[88]

To the United States: 1916–1918

The UNIA flag, a tricolour of red, black, and green. According to Garvey, the red symbolises the blood of martyrs, the black symbolises the skin of Africans, and the green represents the vegetation of the African land.[89]

Arriving in the United States, Garvey initially lodged with a Jamaican expatriate family living in Harlem, a largely black area of New York City.[90] He began lecturing in the city, hoping to make a career as a public speaker, although at his first public speech was heckled and fell off the stage.[91] From New York City, he embarked on a U.S. speaking tour, crossing 38 states.[92] At stopovers on his journey he listened to preachers from the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the Black Baptist churches.[93] While in Alabama, he visited the Tuskegee Institute and met with its new leader, Robert Russa Moton.[94] After six months traveling across the U.S. lecturing, he returned to New York City.[95]

In May 1917, Garvey launched a New York branch of UNIA.[96] He declared membership open to anyone “of Negro blood and African ancestry” who could pay the 25 cents a month membership fee.[97] He joined many other speakers who spoke on the street, standing on step-ladders;[98] he often did so at Speakers’ Corner on 135th Street.[99] In his speeches, he sought to reach across to both Afro-Caribbean migrants like himself and native African-Americans.[100] Through this, he began to associate with Hubert Harrison, who was promoting ideas of black self-reliance and racial separatism.[101] In June, Garvey shared a stage with Harrison at the inaugural meeting of the latter’s Liberty League of Negro-Americans.[102] Through his appearance here and at other events organised by Harrison, Garvey attracted growing public attention.[103]

After the U.S. entered the First World War in April 1917, Garvey initially signed up to fight but was ruled physically unfit to do so.[104] He later became an opponent of African-American involvement in the conflict, following Harrison in accusing it of being a “white man’s war”.[105] In the wake of the East St. Louis Race Riots in May to July 1917, in which white mobs targeted black people, Garvey began calling for armed self-defense.[106] He produced a pamphlet, “The Conspiracy of the East St Louis Riots”, which was widely distributed; proceeds from its sale went to victims of the riots.[107] The Bureau of Investigation began monitoring him, noting that in speeches he employed more militant language than that used in print; it for instance reported him expressing the view that “for every Negro lynched by whites in the South, Negroes should lynch a white in the North.”[108]

By the end of 1917, Garvey had attracted many of Harrison’s key associates in his Liberty League to join UNIA.[109] Garvey also secured the support of the journalist John Edward Bruce, agreeing to step down from the group’s presidency in favor of Bruce.[110] Bruce then wrote to Dusé Mohamed Ali to learn more about Garvey’s past. Mohamed Ali responded with a negative assessment of Garvey, suggesting that he simply used UNIA as a money-making scheme. Bruce read this letter to a UNIA meeting and put pressure on Garvey’s position.[111] Garvey then resigned from UNIA, establishing a rival group that met at Old Fellows Temple.[112] He also launched legal proceedings against Bruce and other senior UNIA members, with the court ruling that UNIA’s name and membership—now estimated at around 600—belonged to Garvey, who resumed control over the organization.[113]

The growth of UNIA: 1918–1921

UNIA membership grew rapidly in 1918.[97] In June that year it was incorporated,[114] and in July a commercial arm, the African Communities’ League, filed for incorporation.[97] Garvey envisioned UNIA establishing an import-and-export business, a restaurant, and a launderette.[97] He also proposed raising the funds to secure a permanent building as a base for the group.[97] In April, Garvey launched a weekly newspaper, the Negro World,[115] which Cronon later noted remained “the personal propaganda organ of its founder”.[116] Financially, the Negro World was backed by philanthropists like Madam C. J. Walker,[117] but six months after its launch was pursuing a special appeal for donations to keep it afloat.[118] Various journalists took Garvey to court for his failure to pay them for their contributions, a fact much publicised by rival publications;[117] at the time, there were over 400 black-run newspapers and magazines in the U.S.[119] Unlike many of these, Garvey refused to feature adverts for skin-lightening and hair-straightening products,[120] urging black people to “take the kinks out of your mind, instead of out of your hair”.[121] By the end of its first year, the circulation of Negro World was nearing 10,000;[117] copies circulated not only in the U.S., but also in the Caribbean, Central, and South America.[122] Several British colonies in the Caribbean banned the publication.[123]

In April 1918, Garvey’s UNIA began publishing the Negro World newspaper

Garvey appointed his old friend Domingo, who had also arrived in New York City, as the newspaper’s editor.[124] However, Domingo’s socialist views alarmed Garvey, who feared that they would imperil UNIA.[125] Garvey had Domingo brought before UNIA’s nine-person executive committee, where the latter was accused of writing editorials professing ideas at odds with UNIA’s message. Domingo resigned several months later; he and Garvey henceforth became enemies.[126] In September 1918, Amy Ashwood sailed from Panama to be with Garvey, arriving in New York City in October.[127] In November, she became General Secretary of UNIA.[128] At UNIA gatherings, she was responsible for reciting black-authored poetry, as was the actor Henrietta Vinton Davis, who had also joined the movement.[129]

After the First World War ended, President Woodrow Wilson declared his intention to present a 14-point plan for world peace at the forthcoming Paris Peace Conference. Garvey joined various African-Americans in forming the International League for Darker People, a group which sought to lobby Wilson and the conference to give greater respect to the wishes of people of colour; their delegates nevertheless were unable to secure the travel documentation.[130] At Garvey’s prompting, UNIA sent a young Haitian, Eliezer Cadet, as its delegate to the conference.[131] Despite these efforts, the political leaders who met in Paris largely ignored the perspectives of non-European peoples, instead reaffirming their support for European colonialism.[132]

In the U.S., many African-Americans who had served in the military refused to return to their more subservient role in society and throughout 1919 there were various racial clashes throughout the country.[133] The government feared that African-Americans would be encouraged toward revolutionary behavior following the October Revolution in Russia,[134] and in this context, military intelligence ordered Major Walter Loving to investigate Garvey.[135] Loving’s report concluded that Garvey was a “very able young man” who was disseminating “clever propaganda”.[136] The BOI’s J. Edgar Hoover decided that Garvey was politically subversive and should be deported from the U.S., adding his name to the list of those to be targeted in the forthcoming Palmer Raids. To ratify the deportation, the BOI presented Garvey’s name to the Labor Department under Louis F. Post, however Post’s department refused to do so, stating that the case against Garvey was not proven.[137]

Success and obstacles

Garvey speaking at Liberty Hall in 1920

UNIA grew rapidly and in just over 18 months it had branches in 25 U.S. states, as well as divisions in the West Indies, Central America, and West Africa.[138] The exact membership is not known, although Garvey—who often exaggerated numbers—claimed that by June 1919 it had two million members.[138] It remained smaller than the better established National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP),[138] although there was some crossover in membership of the two groups.[139] The NAACP and UNIA differed in their approach; while the NAACP was a multi-racial organization which promoted racial integration, UNIA had a black-only membership policy. The NAACP focused its attention on what it termed the “talented tenth” of the African-American population, such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers, whereas UNIA included many poorer people and Afro-Caribbean migrants in its ranks, seeking to project an image of itself as a mass organization.[140] To promote his views to a wide audience, Garvey took to shouting slogans from a megaphone as he was driven through Harlem in a Cadillac.[141]

There were tensions between UNIA and the NAACP and the latter’s supporters accused Garvey of stymieing their efforts at bringing about racial integration in the U.S.[142] Garvey was dismissive of the NAACP leader W. E. B. Du Bois, and in one issue of the Negro World called him a “reactionary under [the] pay of white men”.[143] Du Bois generally tried to ignore Garvey,[144] regarding him as a demagogue,[145] but at the same time wanted to learn all he could about Garvey’s movement.[146] In 1921, Garvey twice reached out to DuBois, asking him to contribute to UNIA publications, but the offer was rebuffed.[147] Their relationship became acrimonious; in 1923, DuBois described Garvey as “a little fat black man, ugly but with intelligent eyes and big head”.[148] By 1924, Grant suggested, the two hated each other.[148]

UNIA established a restaurant and ice cream parlour at 56 West 135th Street,[149] and also launched a millinery store selling hats.[150] With an increased income coming in through UNIA, Garvey moved to a new residence at 238 West 131st Street;[140] in 1919, a young middle-class Jamaican migrant, Amy Jacques, became his personal secretary.[151] UNIA also obtained a partially-constructed church building at 114 West 138 Street in Harlem, which Garvey named “Liberty Hall” after its namesake in Dublin, Ireland, which had been established during the Easter Rising of 1916.[152] The adoption of this name reflected Garvey’s fascination for the Irish independence movement.[153] Liberty Hall’s dedication ceremony was held in July 1919.[154] Garvey also organised the African Legion, a group of uniformed men who would attend UNIA parades;[155] a secret service was formed from Legion members, providing Garvey with intelligence about group members.[156] The formation of the Legion further concerned the BOI, who sent their first full-time black agent, James Wormley Jones, to infiltrate UNIA.[157] In January 1920, Garvey incorporated the Negro Factories League,[158] through which he opened a string of grocery stores, a restaurant, a steam laundry, and publishing house.[159] According to Grant, a personality cult had grown up around Garvey within the UNIA movement;[160] life-size portraits of him hung in the UNIA headquarters and phonographs of his speeches were sold to the membership.[161]

A UNIA parade through Harlem in 1920

In August 1920, UNIA organized the First International Conference of the Negro Peoples in Harlem.[162] This parade was attended by Gabriel Johnson, the Mayor of Monrovia in Liberia.[163] As part of it, an estimated 25,000 people assembled in Madison Square Gardens.[164] At the conference, UNIA delegates declared Garvey to be the Provisional President of Africa, charged with heading a government-in-exile that could take power in the continent when European colonial occupation ended.[165] Some of the West Africans attending the event were angered by this, believing it wrong that an Afro-Jamaican, rather than a native African, was taking this role.[166] Many outside the movement ridiculed Garvey for giving himself this title.[167] The conference then elected other members of the African government-in-exile,[168] resulting in the production of a “Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World” which condemned colonial rule across Africa.[169] In August 1921, UNIA held a banquet in Liberty Hall, at which Garvey gave out honors to various supporters, including such titles as the Order of the Nile and the Order of Ethiopia.[170]

UNIA established growing links with the Liberian government, hoping to secure land in the West African nation onto which it could settle African-American migrants.[171] Liberia was in heavy debt, with UNIA launching a fundraising campaign to raise $2 million towards a Liberian Construction Loan.[171] In 1921, Garvey sent a UNIA team to assess the prospects of mass African-American settlement in Liberia.[172] Internally, UNIA experienced various feuds. Garvey pushed out Cyril Briggs and other members of the African Blood Brotherhood from UNIA, wanting to place growing distance between himself and black socialist groups.[173] In the Negro World, Garvey then accused Briggs—who was of mixed heritage—of being a white man posing as a black man. Briggs successfully sued Garvey for criminal libel.[174] This was not the only time he faced this charge; in July 1919 Garvey had been arrested for comments made about Edwin Kilroe in the Negro World.[175] When this case eventually came to court, the court ordered Garvey to provide a printed retraction.[176]

Assassination attempts, marriage, and divorce

In October 1919, George Tyler, a part-time vendor of the Negro World, entered the UNIA office and tried to assassinate Garvey. The latter received two bullets in his legs but survived. Tyler was soon apprehended but died in an escape attempt from jail; it was never revealed why he tried to kill Garvey.[177] Garvey soon recovered from his wounds; five days later he gave a public speech in Philadelphia.[178] After the assassination attempt, Garvey hired a bodyguard, Marcellus Strong.[179] Shortly after the incident, Garvey proposed marriage to Amy Ashwood and she accepted.[180] On Christmas Day, they had a private Roman Catholic church wedding, followed by a major ceremonial celebration in Liberty Hall, attended by 3000 UNIA members.[181] Jacques was Ashwood’s maid of honour.[180] After the wedding, Garvey moved into Ashwood’s apartment.[182]

“Explanation of the Objects of the Universal Negro Improvement Association”

Complete 1921 speech

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The newlyweds embarked on a two-week honeymoon in Canada, accompanied by a small UNIA retinue, including Jacques. There, Garvey spoke at two mass meetings in Montreal and three in Toronto.[183] Returning to Harlem, the couple’s marriage was soon strained. Ashwood complained of Garvey’s growing closeness with Jacques.[182] Garvey was upset by his inability to control his wife, particularly her drinking and her socialising with other men.[184] She was pregnant, although the child was possibly not his; she did not inform him of this, and the pregnancy ended in miscarriage.[185]

Three months into the marriage, Garvey sought an annulment, on the basis of Ashwood’s alleged adultery and the claim that she had used “fraud and concealment” to induce the marriage.[186] She launched a counter-claim for desertion, requesting $75 a week alimony. The court rejected this sum, instead ordering Garvey to pay her $12 a week. It refused to grant him the divorce.[187] The court proceedings continued for two years.[187] Now separated, Garvey moved into a 129th Street apartment with Jacques and Henrietta Vinton Davis, an arrangement that at the time could have caused some social controversy.[188] He was later joined there by his sister Indiana and her husband, Alfred Peart.[189] Ashwood, meanwhile, went on to become a lyricist and musical director for musicals amid the Harlem Renaissance.[190]

The Black Star Line

From 56 West 135th, UNIA also began selling shares for a new business, the Black Star Line.[149] The Black Star Line based its name on the White Star Line.[191] Garvey envisioned a shipping and passenger line travelling between Africa and the Americas, which would be black-owned, black-staffed, and utilised by black patrons.[192] He thought that the project could be launched by raising $2 million from African-American donors,[193] publicly declaring that any black person who did not buy stock in the company “will be worse than a traitor to the cause of struggling Ethiopia”.[194] He incorporated the company and then sought about trying to purchase a ship.[195] Many African-Americans took great pride in buying company stock, seeing it as an investment in their community’s future;[196] Garvey also promised that when the company began turning a profit they would receive significant financial returns on their investment.[197] To advertise this stock, he travelled to Virginia,[197] and then in September 1919 to Chicago, where he was accompanied by seven other UNIA members. In Chicago, he was arrested and fined for violating the Blue Sky Laws which banned the sale of stock in the city without a license.[198]

A certificate for stock of the Black Star Line

With growing quantities of money coming in, a three-man auditing committee was established, which found that UNIA’s funds were poorly recorded and that the company’s books were not balanced.[199] This was followed by a breakdown in trust between the directors of the Black Star Line, with Garvey discharging two of them, Richard E. Warner and Edgar M. Grey, and publicly humiliating them at the next UNIA meeting.[200] People continued buying stock regardless and by September 1919, the Black Star Line company had accumulated $50,000 by selling stock. It could thus afford a thirty-year old tramp ship, the SS Yarmouth.[201] The ship was formally launched in a ceremony on the Hudson River on 31 October.[202] The company had been unable to find enough trained black seamen to staff the ship, so its initial chief engineer and chief officer were white.[203]

The ship’s first assignment was to sail to Cuba and then to Jamaica, before returning to New York.[204] After that first voyage, the Yarmouth was found to contain many problems and the Black Star Line had to pay $11,000 for repairs.[205] On its second voyage, again to the Caribbean, it hit bad weather shortly after departure and had to be towed back to New York by the coastguard for further repairs.[206] Garvey planned to obtain and launch a second ship by February 1920,[144] with the Black Star Line putting down a $10,000 down payment on a paddle ship called the SS Shadyside.[207] In July 1920, Garvey sacked both the Black Star Line’s secretary, Edward D. Smith-Green, and its captain, Joshua Cockburn; the latter was accused of corruption.[208] In early 1922, the Yarmouth was sold for scrap metal.[209]

In 1921, Garvey travelled to the Caribbean aboard a new BSL ship, the Antonio Maceo, which they had renamed the Kanawha.[210] While in Jamaica, he criticised its inhabitants as being backward and claimed that “Negroes are the most lazy, the most careless and indifferent people in the world”.[211] His comments in Jamaica earned many enemies who criticised him on multiple fronts, including the fact he had left his destitute father to die in an almshouse.[212] Attacks back-and-forth between Garvey and his critics appeared in the letters published by The Gleaner.[213] From Jamaica, Garvey travelled to Costa Rica, where the United Fruit Company assisted his transportation around the country, hoping to gain his favour. There, he met with President Julio Acosta.[214] Arriving in Panama, at one of his first speeches, in Almirante, he was booed after doubling the advertised entry price; his response was to call the crowd “a bunch of ignorant and impertinent Negroes. No wonder you are where you are and for my part you can stay where you are.”[215] He received a far warmer reception at Panama City,[216] after which he sailed to Kingston. From there he sought a return to the U.S., but was repeatedly denied an entry visa. This was only granted after he wrote directly to the State Department.[217]

Criminal charges: 1922–1923

Garvey with his wife Amy Jacques in 1922

In January 1922, Garvey was arrested and charged with mail fraud for having advertised the sale of stocks in a ship, the Orion, which the Black Star Line did not yet own.[218] He was bailed for $2,500.[218] Hoover and the BOI were committed to securing a conviction;[219] they had also received complaints from a small number of the Black Star Line’s stock owners, who wanted them to pursue the matter further.[220] Garvey spoke out against the charges he faced, but focused on blaming not the state, but rival African-American groups, for them.[219] As well as accusing disgruntled former members of UNIA, in a Liberty Hall speech, he implied that the NAACP were behind the conspiracy to imprison him.[221] The mainstream press picked up on the charge, largely presenting Garvey as a con artist who had swindled African-American people.[222]

After his arrest, he made plans for a tour of the western and southern states.[223] This included a parade in Los Angeles, partly to woo back members of UNIA’s California branch, which had recently splintered off to become independent.[224] In June 1922, Garvey met with Edward Young Clarke, the Imperial Wizard pro tempore of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) at the Klan’s offices in Atlanta.[225] Garvey made a number of incendiary speeches in the months leading up to that meeting; in some, he thanked the whites for Jim Crow.[226] Garvey once stated:

I regard the Klan, the Anglo-Saxon clubs and White American societies, as far as the Negro is concerned, as better friends of the race than all other groups of hypocritical whites put together. I like honesty and fair play. You may call me a Klansman if you will, but, potentially, every white man is a Klansman as far as the Negro in competition with whites socially, economically and politically is concerned, and there is no use lying.[227]

News of Garvey’s meeting with the KKK soon spread and it was covered on the front page of many African-American newspapers, causing widespread upset.[228] When news of the meeting was revealed, it generated much surprise and anger among African-Americans; Grant noted that it marked “the most significant turning point in his popularity”.[229] Several prominent black Americans—Chandler Owen, A. Philip Randolph, William Pickens, and Robert Bagnall—launched the “Garvey Must Go” campaign in the wake of the revelation.[230] Many of these critics played to nativist ideas by emphasising Garvey’s Jamaican identity and sometimes calling for his deportation.[231] Pickens and several other of Garvey’s critics claimed to have been threatened, and sometimes physically attacked, by Garveyites.[232] Randolph reported receiving a severed hand in the post, accompanied by a letter from the KKK threatening him to stop criticising Garvey and to join UNIA.[233]

Have this day interviewed Edward Young Clarke, acting Imperial Wizard Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. In conference of two ours he outlined the aims and objects of the Klan. He denied any hostility towards the Negro Improvement Association. He believes America to be a white man’s country, and also states that the Negro should have a country of his own in Africa[…] He has been invited to speak at [UNIA’s] forthcoming convention to further assure the race of the stand of the Klan.

—Garvey’s telegram to UNIA HQ, June 1922.[234]

1922 also brought some successes for Garvey. He attracted the country’s first black pilot, Hubert Fauntleroy Julian, to join UNIA and to perform aerial stunts to raise its profile.[235] The group also launched its Booker T. Washington University from the UNIA-run Phyllis Wheatley Hotel on West 136th Street.[236] He also finally succeeded in securing a UNIA delegation to the League of Nations, sending five members to represent the group to Geneva.[237] Garvey also proposed marriage to his secretary, Jacques. She accepted, although later stated: “I did not marry for love. I did not love Garvey. I married him because I thought it was the right thing to do.”[238] They married in Baltimore in July 1922.[239] She proposed that a book of his speeches be published; it appeared as The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, although the speeches were edited to remove more inflammatory material.[240] That year, UNIA also launched a new newspaper, the Daily Negro Times.[241]

At UNIA’s August 1922 convention, Garvey called for the impeachment of several senior UNIA figures, including Adrian Johnson and J. D. Gibson, and declared that the UNIA cabinet should not be elected by the organization’s members, but appointed directly by him.[242] When they refused to step down, he resigned both as head of UNIA and as Provisional President of Africa, probably in an act designed to compel their own resignations.[243] He then began openly criticising another senior member, Reverend James Eason, and succeeded in getting him expelled from UNIA.[244] With Eason gone, Garvey asked the rest of the cabinet to resign; they did so, at which he resumed his role as head of the organization.[245] In September, Eason launched a rival group to UNIA, the Universal Negro Alliance.[231] In January 1923, Eason was assassinated by Garveyites while in New Orleans.[246] Hoover suspected that the killing had been ordered by senior UNIA members, although Garvey publicly denied any involvement; he nevertheless launched a defense fund campaign for Eason’s killers.[247]

Following the murder, eight prominent African-Americans signed a public letter calling Garvey “an unscrupulous demagogue who has ceaselessly and assiduously sought to spread among Negroes distrust and hatred of all white people”. They urged the Attorney-General to bring forth the criminal case against Garvey and disband UNIA.[248] Garvey was furious, publicly accusing them of “the greatest bit of treachery and wickedness that any group of Negroes could be capable of.”[249] In a pamphlet attacking them he focused on their racial heritage, lambasting the eight for the reason that “nearly all [are] Octoroons and Quadroons”.[250] DuBois—who was not among the eight—then wrote an article critical of Garvey’s activities in the U.S.[251] Garvey responded by calling DuBois “a Hater of Dark People”, an “unfortunate mulatto who bewails every drop of Negro blood in his veins”.[252]

Trial: 1923

The Black Star Line brochure for the SS Phyllis Wheatley, central exhibit in the Mail Fraud case of 1921. The SS Phyllis Wheatley, did not exist, this is a doctored photograph of an ex-German ship the SS Orion put up for sale by the United States Shipping Board. The Black Star Line had proposed to buy her but the transaction was never completed.[253]

Having been postponed at least three times,[234] in May 1923, the trial finally came to court, with Garvey and three other defendants accused of mail fraud.[254] The judge overseeing the proceedings was Julian Mack, although Garvey disliked his selection on the grounds that he thought Mack an NAACP sympathiser.[254] At the start of the trial, Garvey’s attorney, Cornelius McDougald, urged him to plead guilty to secure a minimum sentence, but Garvey refused, dismissing McDougald and deciding to represent himself in court.[255] The trial proceeded for over a month.[256] Throughout, Garvey struggled due to his lack of legal training.[257] In his three-hour closing address he presented himself as a selfless leader who was beset by incompetent and thieving staff who caused all the problems for UNIA and the Black Star Line.[258] On 18 June, the jurors retired to deliberate on the verdict, returning after ten hours. They found Garvey himself guilty, but his three co-defendants not guilty.[259]

Garvey was furious with the verdict, shouting abuse in the courtroom and calling both the judge and district attorney “damned dirty Jews”.[260] Imprisoned in The Tombs jail while awaiting sentencing, he continued to blame a Jewish cabal for the verdict; in contrast, prior to this he had never expressed anti-semitic sentiment and was supportive of Zionism.[261] When it came to sentencing, Mack sentenced Garvey to five years’ imprisonment and a $1000 fine.[261] The severity of the sentence—which was harsher than those given to similar crimes at the time—may have been a response to Garvey’s anti-Semitic outburst.[261] He felt that they had been biased because of their political objections to his meeting with the acting imperial wizard of the Ku Klux Klan the year before.[262] In 1928, Garvey told a journalist: “When they wanted to get me they had a Jewish judge try me, and a Jewish prosecutor. I would have been freed but two Jews on the jury held out against me ten hours and succeeded in convicting me, whereupon the Jewish judge gave me the maximum penalty.”[262]

A week after the sentence, 2000 Garveyite protesters met at Liberty Hall to denounce Garvey’s conviction as a miscarriage of justice.[263] However, with Garvey imprisoned, UNIA’s membership began to decline,[264] and there was a growing schism between its Caribbean and African-American members.[263] From jail, Garvey continued to write letters and articles lashing out at those he blamed for the conviction, focusing much of his criticism on the NAACP.[265]

Out on bail: 1923–1925

In September, Judge Martin Manton awarded Garvey bail for $15,000—which was duly raised by UNIA—while he appealed his conviction.[266] Again a free man, he toured the U.S., giving a lecture at the Tuskegee Institute.[267] In speeches given during this tour he further emphasised the need for racial segregation through migration to Africa, calling the United States “a white man’s country”.[268] He continued to defend his meeting with the KKK, describing them as having more “honesty of purpose towards the Negro” than the NAACP.[268] Although he previously avoided involvement with party politics, for the first time he encouraged UNIA to propose candidates in elections, often setting them against NAACP-backed candidates in areas with high black populations.[269]

The American Negro has endured this wretch [Garvey] too long with fine restraint and every effort of cooperation and understanding. But the end has come. Every man who apologises for or defends Marcus Garvey from this day forth writes himself down as unworthy of the countenance of decent Americans. As for Garvey himself, this open ally of the Ku Klux Klan should be locked up or sent home.

—DuBois, in Crisis, May 1924.[270]

In February 1924, UNIA put forward its plans to bring 3000 African-American migrants to Liberia. The latter’s President, Charles D. B. King, assured them that he would grant them area for three colonies.[271] In June, a team of UNIA technicians was sent to start work in preparing for these colonies.[272] When they arrived in Liberia, they were arrested and immediately deported. At the same time, Liberia’s government issued a press release declaring that it would refuse permission for any Americans to settle in their country.[273] Garvey blamed DuBois for this apparent change in the Liberian government’s attitude, for the latter had spent time in the country and had links with its ruling elite; DuBois denied the accusation.[274] Later examination suggested that, despite King’s assurances to the UNIA team, the Liberian government had never seriously intended to allow African-American colonization, aware that it would harm relations with the British and French colonies on their borders, who feared the political radicalism it could bring with it.[275]

UNIA faced further setbacks when Bruce died; the group organised a funeral procession ending in a ceremony at Liberty Hall.[276] In need of additional finances, Negro World dropped its longstanding ban on advertising skin lightening and hair straightening products.[211] The additional revenues allowed the Black Star Line to purchase a new ship, the SS General G W Goethals, in October 1924. It was then renamed the SS Booker T. Washington.[277]

Imprisonment: 1925–1927

A postcard depicting the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary in 1920, a few years before Garvey was imprisoned there

In early 1925, the U.S. Court of Appeal upheld the original court decision.[278] Garvey was in Detroit at the time and was arrested while aboard a train back to New York City.[279] In February he was taken to the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary and incarcerated there.[280] Imprisoned, he was made to carry out cleaning tasks.[281] On one occasion he was reprimanded for insolence towards the white prison officers.[282] There, he became increasingly ill with chronic bronchitis and lung infections;[283] two years into his imprisonment he would be hospitalized with influenza.[284] He received regular letters from UNIA members and from his wife;[285] she also visited him every three weeks.[286] With his support, she assembled another book of his collected speeches, Philosophy and Opinions; these had often been edited to remove inflammatory comments about wielding violence against white people.[287] He also wrote The Meditations of Marcus Garvey, its name an allusion to The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius.[288] From prison, Garvey continued corresponding with far-right white separatist activists like Earnest Sevier Cox of the White American Society and John Powell of the Anglo-Saxon Clubs of America; the latter visited Garvey in prison.[289]

While Garvey was imprisoned, Ashwood launched a legal challenge against his divorce from her; had the divorce been found void then his marriage to Jacques would have been invalid.[285] The court nevertheless ruled in favor of Garvey, recognising the legality of his divorce.[290] With Garvey absent, William Sherrill became acting head of UNIA.[291] To deal with the organization’s financial problems, he re-mortgaged Liberty Hall to pay off debts and ended up selling off the SS Brooker T Washington at a quarter of what UNIA had paid for it.[292] Garvey was angry and in February 1926 wrote to the Negro World expressing his dissatisfaction with Sherrill’s leadership.[293] From prison, he organized an emergency UNIA convention in Detroit, where delegates voted to depose Sherrill.[294] The latter’s supporters then held a rival convention in Liberty Hall, reflecting the growing schism in the organization.[295] A subsequent court ruling determined that it was UNIA’s New York branch, then controlled by Sherrill, rather than the central UNIA leadership itself, that owned Liberty Hall.[296] The financial problems continued, resulting in Liberty Hall being repeatedly re-mortgaged and then sold.[297]

The Attorney General, John Sargent, received a petition with 70,000 signatures urging for Garvey’s release.[298] Sargeant warned President Calvin Coolidge that African-Americans were regarding Garvey’s imprisonment not as a form of justice against a man who had swindled them but as “an act of oppression of the race in their efforts in the direction of race progress”.[297] Eventually, Coolidge agreed to commute the sentence so that it would expire immediately, on 18 November 1927. He stipulated, however, that Garvey should be deported straight after release.[299] On being released, Garvey was taken by train to New Orleans, where around a thousand supporters saw him onto the SS Saramaca on 3 December.[300] The ship then stopped at Cristóbal in Panama, where supporters again greeted him, but where the authorities refused his request to disembark.[301] He then transferred to the SS Santa Maria, which took him to Kingston.[301]

Later years

Back to Jamaica: 1927–1935

In Kingston, Garvey was greeted by supporters.[302] UNIA members had raised $10,000 to help him settle in Jamaica,[301] with which he bought a large house in an elite neighbourhood, which he called the “Somali Court”.[303] His wife shipped over his belongings—which included 18,000 books and hundreds of antiques—before joining him.[304] In Jamaica, he continued giving speeches, including at a building in Kingston he had also named “Liberty Hall”.[305] He urged Afro-Jamaicans to raise their standards of living and rally against Chinese and Syrian migrants who had moved to the island.[306] Meanwhile, the U.S. UNIA had been taken over by E. B. Knox; the latter was summoned to Jamaica for a meeting with Garvey after Laura Kofey, the leader of a group that had broken from UNIA, was killed, bringing the organization into further disrepute.[307]

While in London, Garvey spoke at the Royal Albert Hall

Garvey attempted to travel across Central America but found his hopes blocked by the region’s various administrations, who regarded him as disruptive.[308] Instead, he travelled to England in April, where he rented a house in London’s West Kensington area for four months.[309] In May, he spoke at the Royal Albert Hall.[310] Later that year, he and his wife visited Paris, where he spoke at the Club du Fauborg, before traveling to Switzerland.[311] They then travelled to Canada, where Garvey was detained for one night before being barred from making speeches.[312]

Back in Kingston, UNIA obtained Edelweiss Park in Cross Roads, which it established as its new headquarters.[313] They held a conference there, opened by a parade through the city which attracted tens of thousands of onlookers.[314] At Edelweiss Park, UNIA also began putting on plays. One of these, Coronation of an African King, was written by Garvey and performed in August 1930. Its plot revolved around the crowning of Prince Cudjoe of Sudan, although it anticipated the crowning of Haile Selassie of Ethiopia later that year.[313] In Jamaica, Garvey became a de facto surrogate father to his niece, Ruth, whose father had recently died.[313] In September 1930, his first son, Marcus Garvey Junior, was born; three years later a second son, Julius, followed.[315]

In Kingston, Garvey was elected a city councillor and established the country’s first political party, the People’s Political Party (PPP), through which he intended to contest the forthcoming legislative council election.[316] In September 1929 he addressed a crowd of 1,500 supporters, launching the PPP’s manifesto, which included land reform to benefit tenant farmers, the addition of a minimum wage to the constitution, pledges to build Jamaica’s first university and opera house, and a proposed law to impeach and imprison corrupt judges.[317] The latter policy led to Garvey being charged with demeaning the judiciary and undermining public confidence in it. He pled guilty, and was sentenced to three months in a Spanish Town prison and a £100 fine.[318] While imprisoned, Garvey was removed from the Kingston council by other councillors. Garvey was furious and wrote an editorial against them, published in the Blackman journal.[319] This resulted in his being charged with seditious libel, for which he was convicted and sentences to six months in prison. His conviction was then overturned on appeal.[319] He then campaigned as the PPP’s candidate for the legislative assembly in Saint Andrew Parish, in which he secured 915 votes, being defeated by George Seymour-Jones.[319]

In increasingly strained finances amid the Great Depression, Garvey began working as an auctioneer, and by 1935 was supplementing this with his wife’s savings.[320] He re-mortgaged his house and personal properties and in 1934 Edelweiss Park was foreclosed and auctioned off.[320] Dissatisfied with life in Jamaica, Garvey decided to move to London, sailing aboard the SS Tilapa in March 1935.[321] Once in London, he told his friend Amy Bailey that he had “left Jamaica a broken man, broken in spirit, broken in health and broken in pocket… and I will never, never, never go back.”[322]

Life in London: 1935–1940

Blue plaque at 53 Talgarth Road installed in 2005

In London, Garvey sought to rebuild UNIA, although found there was much competition in the city from other black activist groups.[323] He established a new UNIA headquarters in Beaumont Gardens, West Kensington and launched a new monthly journal, Black Man.[324] Garvey returned to speaking at Speakers’ Corner in Hyde Park.[325] When he spoke in public, he was increasingly harangued by socialists for his conservative stances.[326] He also had hopes of becoming a Member of Parliament, although this amounted to nothing.[323]

In 1935, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War broke out as Italy invaded Ethiopia. Garvey spoke out against the Italians and praised the government of Haile Selassie.[327] By October, however, he was becoming increasingly critical of Selassie, blaming his lack of preparedness for Ethiopia’s failures in the war.[328] When Selassie fled his homeland and arrived in Britain, Garvey was among the black delegates who arranged to meet him at Waterloo railway station, but was rebuffed.[328] From that point he became more openly hostile to Selassie, describing him as a “feudal monarch who looks down upon his slaves and serfs with contempt” and “a great coward who ran away from his country to save his skin”.[329] Garvey’s vocal criticisms of Selassie further ostracised him from the broader black activist community—including many Garveyites—most of whom were rallying around Selassie as a symbol of Ethiopia’s struggle against colonialism.[330]

In June 1937, Garvey’s wife and children arrived in England, where the latter were sent to a school in Kensington Gardens.[331] Shortly after, Garvey embarked on a lecture and fundraising tour of Canada and the Caribbean, in which he attended the annual UNIA convention in Toronto.[331] In Trinidad, he openly criticised a recent oil workers’ strike; this probably exacerbated tensions between him and two prominent Trinidadian Marxists then living in London, C. L. R. James and George Padmore.[332] Once he had returned to London, Garvey took up a new family home in Talgarth Road, not far from UNIA’s headquarters.[333] In public debates, Garvey repeatedly clashed with Padmore, who was chair of the International African Service Bureau.[334] In the summer of 1938, Garvey returned to Toronto for the next UNIA conference.[333]

While Garvey was gone, his wife and sons returned to Jamaica. Doctors had recommended that Marcus Garvey Junior be moved to a warm climate to aid with his severe rheumatism; Jacques had not informed her husband of the decision.[335] When Garvey returned to London, he was furious with his wife’s decision.[336] Garvey was increasingly isolated, while UNIA was running out of funds as its international membership dwindled.[337] For the first time in many years, he met up with Ashwood, who was also living in London.[338]

Death and burial: 1940

In January 1940, Garvey suffered a stroke which left him largely paralysed.[339] His secretary, Daisy Whyte, took on responsibility for his care.[340] At this point, Padmore spread rumours of Garvey’s death; this led to many newspapers publishing premature obituaries, many of which he read.[341] Garvey then suffered a second stroke and died at the age of 52 on 10 June 1940.[342] His body was interred in a vault in the catacombs of St Mary’s Roman Catholic Church in Kensal Green Cemetery, West London.[343]

Various wakes and memorials were held for Garvey, especially in New York City and Kingston.[343] In Harlem, a procession of mourners paraded to his memorial service.[343] Some Garveyites refused to believe Garvey had died, even when confronted with photographs of his body in its coffin, insisting that this was part of a conspiracy to undermine his movement.[343] Both Ashwood and Jacques presented themselves as the “widow of Marcus Garvey” and Ashwood launched legal action against Jacques in an attempt to secure control over his body.[344]

The writer Richard Hart later noted that within a decade of his death “a veritable cult” had begun to grow around Garvey’s memory in Jamaica.[345] By the 1950s, Jamaican politicians of varied ideological backgrounds were invoking his name.[345] Leslie Alexander, a Kingston real estate agent, proposed the removal of Garvey’s body and its return to Jamaica.[346] Alexander’s campaign was successful and in 1964 Garvey’s remains were dug up and returned to Jamaica. The body lay in state at the Roman Catholic Cathedral in Kingston while thousands of visitors came to see it.[347] It was then reburied in King George VI Memorial Park on 22 November 1964 with pomp and ceremony befitting a national hero; numerous foreign diplomats attended.[348] The monument, designed by G. C. Hodges, consists of a tomb at the center of a raised platform in the shape of a black star, a symbol often used by Garvey. Behind it, a peaked and angled wall houses a bust, by Alvin T. Marriot, of Garvey, which was added to the park in 1956 (before his reinterment) and relocated after the construction of the monument.[349]

Ideology

Ethiopia, thou land of our fathers,Thou land where the gods loved to be,As storm cloud at night suddenly gathersOur armies come rushing to thee.We must in the fight be victoriousWhen swords are thrust outward to gleam;For us will the vict’ry be gloriousWhen led by the red, black, and green.

— Lyrics from the UNIA anthem[350]

Ideologically, Garvey was a black nationalist.[351] Generally referring to dark-skinned peoples of African descent as “Negroes”, he and UNIA insisted that that term be capitalised, thus according dignity and respect to those whom it described.[352] His ideas were influenced by a range of sources. According to Grant, while in London Garvey displayed “an amazing capacity to absorb political tracts, theories of social engineering, African history and Western Enlightenment.”[70] Garvey was exposed to the ideas about race that were prevalent at the time;[353] his ideas on race were also heavily informed by the writings of Edward Wilmot Blyden.[354]

During the late 1910s and 1920s, Garvey was also influenced by the ideas of the Irish independence movement, to which he was sympathetic.[355] He saw strong parallels between the British subjugation of Ireland and the broader subjugation of black people,[153] and identified strongly with the Irish independence leader Éamon de Valera.[356] In 1922, he sent a message to Valera stating that “We believe Ireland should be free even as Africa shall be free for the Negroes of the world. Keep up the fight for a free Ireland.”[357] For Garvey, Ireland’s Sinn Féin and the Irish independence movement served as a blueprint for his own black nationalist cause.[356] In July 1919 he stated that “the time has come for the Negro race to offer up its martyrs upon the altar of liberty even as the Irish [had] given a long list from Robert Emmet to Roger Casement.”[358] He also admired the Indian independence movement then seeking freedom from the British Empire, describing Mahatma Gandhi as “one of the noblest characters of the day”.[359]

Racial separatism

While in the U.S., ideas about the need for black racial purity became central to Garvey’s thought.[353] He promoted racial separatism, but did not stress the idea of racial superiority.[360] He argued that mixed-race people would be bred out of existence;[361] this hostility to black people not deemed of “pure” African blood was an idea that Garvey shared with Blyden.[362] Cronon believed that Garvey exhibited “antipathy and distrust for any but the darkest-skinned Negroes”.[363] He also rallied against Eurocentric beauty standards among blacks, seeing it as an impediment to black self-respect.[364]

Garvey vehemently denounced miscegenation.[365] He accused Du Bois and NAACP of promoting “amalgamation or general miscegenation”.[366] He rallied against what he called the “race destroying doctrine” of those African-Americans calling for racial integration in the U.S., instead maintaining that his UNIA stood for “the pride and purity of race. We believe that the white race should uphold its racial pride and perpetuate itself, and that the black race should do likewise. We believe that there is room enough in the world for the various race groups to grow and develop by themselves without seeking to destroy the Creator’s plan by the constant introduction of mongrel types.”[364]

He argued that the European-American population of the U.S. would never tolerate the social integration proposed by activists like DuBois and that campaigns for such integration would only encourage anti-black riots and lynchings.[365] He openly conceded that the U.S. was a white man’s country and thus did not think African-Americans could expect equality within it. He thus opposed attempts at social and economic integration of the races within the country.[364]

Garvey’s belief in racial separatism, the migration of African-Americans to Africa, and opposition to miscegenation all endeared him to the KKK, who supported many of the same policies.[365] He was willing to collaborate with U.S. white supremacists to achieve his aims. They were willing to work with him because his approach effectively acknowledged the idea that the U.S. should be a country exclusively for white people and would abandon campaigns for advanced rights for African-Americans within the U.S.[367] Garvey called for black collaboration with the white separatist Anglo-Saxon Clubs, stating that they shared the same ideals: “the purification of the races, their autonomous separation and the unbridled freedom of self-development and self-expression. Those who are against this are enemies of both races, and rebels against morality, nature and God.”[368]

Pan-Africanism

Garvey adopted a Pan-Africanist view,[369] and in the wake of the First World War called for the formation of “a United Africa for the Africans of the World”.[370] UNIA promoted the view that Africa was the natural homeland of the African diaspora.[371] While imprisoned, he penned an editorial for the Negro World entitled “African Fundamentalism”, in which he called for “the founding of a racial empire whose only natural, spiritual and political aims shall be God and Africa, at home and abroad.”[372]

Garvey supported the Back-to-Africa movement, which had been influenced by Edward Wilmot Blyden, who migrated to Liberia in 1850.[373] However, Garvey did not believe that all African-Americans should migrate to Africa. Instead, he thought that only an elite selection, namely those African-Americans of the purest African blood, should do so. The rest of the African-American population, he believed, should remain in the United States, where they would be extinct within fifty years.[367] A proponent of the Back-to-Africa movement, Garvey called for a vanguard of educated and skilled African-Americans to travel to West Africa, a journey facilitated by his Black Star Line.[374] Garvey stated that “The majority of us may remain here, but we must send our scientists, our mechanics and our artisans and let them build railroads, let them build the great educational and other institutions necessary”, after which other members of the African diaspora could join them.[374] He was aware that the majority of African-Americans would not want to move to Africa until it had the more modern comforts that they had become accustomed to in the U.S.[374]

Wheresoever I go, whether it is England, France or Germany, I am told, “This is a white man’s country.” Wheresoever I travel throughout the United States of America, I am made to understand that I am a “nigger”. If the Englishman claims England as his native habitat, and the Frenchman claims France, the time has come for 400 million Negroes to claim Africa as their native land… If you believe that the Negro should have a place in the sun; if you believe that Africa should be one vast empire, controlled by the Negro, then arise.

— Garvey, August 1920 [375]

In the 1920s, Garvey referred to his desire for a “big black republic” in Africa.[376] Garvey’s envisioned Africa was to be a one-party state in which the president could have “absolute authority” to appoint “all his lieutenants from cabinet ministers, governors of States and Territories, administrators and judges to minor offices”.[361] According to the scholar of African-American studies Wilson S. Moses, the future African state which Garvey envisioned was “authoritarian, elitist, collectivist, racist, and capitalistic”,[361] suggesting that it would have resembled the later Haitian government of François Duvalier.[377] Garvey told the historian J. A. Rogers that he and his followers were “the first fascists”, adding that “Mussolini copied Fascism from me, but the Negro reactionaries sabotaged it”.[378]

In 1920, Garvey began discussions through his emissary Ellie Garcia with the president of Liberia, Charles D.B. King, to relocated the UNIA headquarters to that West African country. Further visits to Liberia took place in 1921 and 1923, but by 1924 the relationship between Garvey and King had soured, and the Liberian government confiscated their property, proscribed the UNIA, and deported the UNIA representatives.[379]

Garvey never visited Africa himself,[380] and did not speak any African languages.[381] He knew very little about the continent’s varied customs, languages, and religions, or of its traditional social structures,[382] with his critics often thinking that his views of the continent were romanticised and ignorant.[383] It has been speculated that the Western colonial authorities would not have given permission to Garvey to visit colonies where he would be calling for decolonisation.[384] The Jamaican writer and poet Claude McKay for instance noted that Garvey “talks of Africa as if it were a little island in the Caribbean Sea.”[383] Garvey shared negative stereotypes about Africa as a backwards continent that was in need of the civilizing influence of Western, Christian states.[385] Among his stated aims were “to assist in civilising the backward tribes of Africa” and “to promote a conscientious Christian worship among” them.[385] His idea that Africans would ultimately be liberated by the efforts of the African diaspora living outside the continent has been considered condescending.[386]

Moses stated that rather than respecting indigenous African cultures, Garvey’s views of an ideal united Africa were based on “the imperial model of Victorian England”.[387] When extolling the glories of Africa, Garvey cited the ancient Egyptians and Ethiopians who had built empires and monumental architecture, which he saw as evidence of civilization, rather than the smaller-scale societies of other parts of the continent.[388] Moses thought that Garvey “had more affinity for the pomp and tinsel of European imperialism than he did for black African tribal life”.[388] The writer Richard Hart similarly noted that Garvey was “much attracted by the glamour of the British nobility”, as reflected in the way he gave prominent supporters such British-derived titles as “Lords”, “Ladies”, and “Knights”.[389]

Economic views

Economically, Garvey supported capitalism,[390] stating that “capitalism is necessary to the progress of the world, and those who unreasonably and wantonly oppose or fight against it are enemies to human advancement.”[361] He proposed that no individual should be allowed to control more than one million dollars and no company more than five million.[361] Under Garvey, UNIA’s focus was on achieving economic independence for the African diaspora.[391] In Garvey’s opinion, “without commerce and industry, a people perish economically. The Negro is perishing because he has no economic system”.[360]

In the U.S., Garvey promoted a capitalistic ethos for the economic development of the African-American community.[392] He wanted to achieve greater financial independence for the African-American community, believing that this would ensure greater protection from discrimination.[360] In his view, European-American employers would always favor European-American employees, and thus to gain more security, African-Americans needed their own businesses.[368] He admired Booker T. Washington’s economic endeavours although was critical of his individualistic focus: Garvey believed African-American interests would best be advanced if businesses included collective decision making and group profit sharing.[392] While in Harlem, he envisioned the formation of a global network of black people trading amongst themselves, believing that his Black Star Line would contribute to this aim.[393] His emphasis on capitalist ventures meant, according to Grant, that Garvey “was making a straight pitch to the petit-bourgeois capitalist instinct of the majority of black folk.”[160]

There is no evidence that Garvey was ever sympathetic to socialism.[394] While in the U.S., he strongly opposed attempts by socialist and communist groups to recruit African-Americans into the trade union movement,[395] and urged African-Americans not to support the Communist Party.[396] He viewed the communist movement as a white person’s creation that was not in the interests of African-Americans.[396] He stated that communism was “a dangerous theory of economic or political reformation because it seeks to put government in the hands of an ignorant white mass who have not been able to destroy their natural prejudices towards Negroes and other non-white people. While it may be a good thing for them, it will be a bad thing for the Negroes who will fall under the government of the most ignorant, prejudiced class of the white race.”[396] In response, the Communist International characterised Garveyism as a reactionary bourgeoise philosophy.[368]

Black Christianity

Whilst our God has no color, yet it is human to see everything through one’s own spectacles, and since the white people have seen their God through white spectacles, we have only now started out (late though it be) to see our God through our own spectacles.

— Garvey, on viewing God as black, 1923[397]

Grant noted that “Garveyism would always remain a secular movement with a strong under-tow of religion”.[398] Garvey envisioned a unified religion for black African people, one that was a variant of Christianity.[389] Reflecting his own Catholicism, he wanted this black-centric Christianity to be as close to Roman Catholicism as possible.[397] Garvey sought to create a black religion,[388] with Cronon suggesting that Garvey promoted “racist ideas about religion”.[399]

Garvey emphasised the idea of black people worshipping a God who was also depicted as black.[397] He called for black people to worship images of Jesus of Nazareth and the Virgin Mary that depicted these figures as black Africans.[389] In doing so, he did not make use of pre-existing forms of black-dominant religion. Garvey had little experience with these, having attended a white-run Wesleyan congregation as a child and later converting to Roman Catholicism.[400]

Personality and personal life

Garvey photographed in 1922

Physically, Garvey was short and stocky.[401] He suffered from asthma,[402] and was prone to lung infections;[124] throughout his adult life he was affected by bouts of pneumonia.[403] Tony Martin called Garvey a “restless young man”,[404] while Grant thought that in his early years Garvey had a “naïve but determined personality”.[405] Grant noted that Garvey “possessed a single-mindedness of purpose that left no room for the kind of spectacular failure that was always a possibility”.[124]

He was eloquent and a good orator,[406] with Cronon suggesting that his “peculiar gift of oratory” stemmed from “a combination of bombast and stirring heroics”.[407] Grant described Garvey’s public speeches as “strange and eclectic – part evangelical […] partly formal King’s English, and part lilting Caribbean speechifying”.[408] Garvey enjoyed arguing with people,[22] and wanted to be seen as a learned man;[409] he read widely, particularly in history.[410] Cronon suggested that “Garvey’s florid style of writing and speaking, his fondness for appearing in a richly colored cap and gown, and his use of the initials “D.C.L.” after his name were but crude attempts to compensate” for his lack of formal academic qualifications.[409] Grant thought Garvey was an “extraordinary salesman who’d developed a philosophy where punters weren’t just buying into a business but were placing a down payment on future black redemption.”[411] Even his enemies acknowledged that he was a skilled organiser and promoter.[412]

For Grant, Garvey was “a man of grand, purposeful gestures”.[72] He thought that the black nationalist leader was an “ascetic” who had “conservative tastes”.[413] Garvey was a teetotaller who regarded alcohol consumption as morally reprehensible.[183] He placed value on courtesy and respect, discouraging loutishness among his supporters.[414] He enjoyed dressing up in military costumes,[415] and adored regal pomp and ceremony;[389] he believed that pageantry would stir the black masses out of their apathy, despite the accusations of buffoonery made by the African-American intelligentsia.[389] Grant noted that Garvey had a “tendency to overstate his achievements”.[402] In 1947, the Jamaican historian J. A. Rogers included Garvey in his book, the World’s Great Men of Colour, where he noted that “had [Garvey] ever come to power, he would have been another Robespierre”, resorting to violence and terror to enforce his ideas.[416]

In 1919, he married Amy Ashwood in a Roman Catholic ceremony,[181] although they separated after three months.[186] The New York court would not grant Garvey a divorce, but he later obtained one in Jackson County, Missouri.[187] Ashwood contested the legitimacy of this divorce and for the rest of her life maintained that she was Garvey’s legitimate spouse.[187]

Garvey was a Roman Catholic.[417] Garvey collected antique ceramics and enjoyed going around antique shops and flea markets searching for items to add to his collection.[418]

Reception and legacy

Garvey was a polarizing figure,[419] an individual both revered and reviled.[72] Grant noted that views on him divided largely between two camps, one portraying him as a charlatan and the other as a saint;[347] similarly, Cronon noted that Garvey was varyingly perceived as “strident demagogue or dedicated prophet, martyred visionary or fabulous con man”.[420] Martin noted that by the time Garvey returned to Jamaica in the 1920s, he was “just about the best known Black man in the whole world”.[421] The size and scope of UNIA has also attracted attention; Mark Christian described Garvey as the leader of “the largest Black mass movement in modern history,”[422] while John Henrik Clarke termed it “the first Black mass protest crusade in the history of the United States”.[423] His ideas influenced many black people who never became paying members of UNIA.[424]

Garvey attracted attention chiefly because he put into powerful ringing phrases the secret thoughts of the Negro world. He told his listeners what they wanted to hear—that a black skin was not a badge of shame but rather a glorious symbol of national greatness. He promised a Negro nation in the African homeland that would be the marvel of the modern world. He pointed to Negro triumphs in the past and described in glowing syllables the glories of the future. When Garvey spoke of the greatness of the race, Negroes everywhere could forget for a moment the shame of discrimination and the horrors of lynching.

— Edmund David Cronon 1955[407]

In Jamaica, Garvey is often regarded as a national hero.[425] The scholar of African-American studies Molefi Kete Asante included Garvey on his 2002 list of 100 Greatest African Americans,[426] while in 2008, the American writer Ta-Nehisi Coates described Garvey as the “patron saint” of the black nationalist movement.[427] Grant thought that Garvey, along with Du Bois, deserved to be seen as the “father of Pan-Africanism”,[344] while the Nigerian historian B. Steiner Ifekwe called Garvey “one of the greatest Pan-African leaders of the time”.[428] Garvey has received praise from those who see him as a “race patriot”,[429] and many African-Americans see him as having encouraged a sense of self-respect and pride among black people.[430] While living in the U.S., Garvey was often referred to—sometimes sarcastically—as the “Negro Moses”, implying that like the eponymous Old Testament figure, he would lead his people out of the oppressive situation they lived in.[240]

In 1955, Cronon stated that while Garvey “achieved little in the way of permanent improvement” for black people, he “awakened fires of Negro nationalism that have yet to be extinguished”.[407] In Cronon’s view, Garvey’s importance was in giving African-descended peoples a new feeling of collective pride and a sense of individual worth.[431] Hart believed that Garvey’s importance lay in stirring millions of people who were otherwise apathetic into action. In this way, Hart thought, Garvey had helped lay the groundwork for the U.S. civil rights movement during the 1950s and 1960s, even if that movement’s calls for racial integration and equality within the U.S. ran contrary to Garvey’s own beliefs in racial separation and migration to Africa.[432]

Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana, wrote in his autobiography that of all the literature he had studied, the book that did more than any other to inspire him was the “Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, or Africa for the Africans”.[433] Nkrumah went on to name Ghana’s national shipping line the “Black Star Line”, while there’s a Black Star Square in Accra, and a black star in the Ghanaian flag. The national football team is also nicknamed the Black Stars.[434]

While in the U.S., Garvey faced strong opposition from many prominent figures in the African-American community as well as from leading progressive and left-wing organisations.[364] Critics regarded him as an idealist.[435] Garvey obtained a reputation for failing to pay his debts,[436] and his detractors accused him of dishonesty.[436] Critics like Du Bois often mocked Garvey for his outfits and the grandiose titles he gave to himself;[437] in their view, he was embarrassingly pretentious.[72] According to Grant, much of the established African-American middle-class were “perplexed and embarrassed” by Garvey, who thought that the African-American working classes should turn to their leadership rather than his.[374] Concerns were also raised that his violent language was inflaming many Garveyites to carry out violent acts against his critics.[438] Grant noted that in the years following Garvey’s death, his life was primarily presented by his political opponents.[415]

Writing for The Black Scholar in 1972, the scholar of African-American studies Wilson S. Moses expressed concern about the “uncritical adulation” of Garvey within African-American political circles. In Moses’ opinion, this adulation led to “red baiting” and “divisive rhetoric” about being “Blacker-than-thou”.[439] Moses argued that it was wrong for people to regard Garvey as a “man of the people” because the latter came from a petty bourgeoise background and had “enjoyed cultural, economic, and educational advantages few of his black contemporaries” had enjoyed.[9]

Influence on political movements

The Flag of Ghana adopted the same colours used by UNIA[344]

In Jamaica, Garvey was largely forgotten in the years after his death, but interest in him was revived by the Rastafari religious movement.[440] Jacques wrote a book about her late husband, Garvey and Garveyism, and after finding that no publishers were interested in it she self-published the volume in 1963.[440] In 1975 the reggae artist Burning Spear released the album Marcus Garvey.[440]

Interest in Garvey’s ideas would also be revived in the 1960s through the growth of independent states across Africa and the emergence of the Black Power movement in the United States.[441] Mark Christian suggested that Garveyism gave an important psychological boost to African leaders campaigning for independence from European colonial rule,[442] while Claudius Fergus proposed that it played an important role in encouraging Africans to see the African diaspora as an “integral constituent of their own political destiny.”[443] In his autobiography, Kwame Nkrumah, the prominent Pan-Africanist activist who became Ghana’s first president, acknowledged having been influenced by Garvey.[440] The flag that Ghana adopted when it became independent adopted the colours of UNIA.[344] In November 1964, Garvey’s body was removed from West Kensal Green Cemetery and taken to Jamaica. There, it lay in state in Kingston’s Roman Catholic Cathedral before a motorcade took it to King George VI Memorial Park, where it was re-buried.[347]

During a trip to Jamaica, Martin Luther King and his wife Coretta Scott King visited Garvey’s shrine on 20 June 1965 and laid a wreath.[444] In a speech he told the audience that Garvey “was the first man of color to lead and develop a mass movement. He was the first man on a mass scale and level to give millions of Negroes a sense of dignity and destiny. And make the Negro feel he was somebody.”[445] Vietnamese Communist revolutionary Ho Chi Minh said Garvey and Korean nationalists shaped his political outlook during his stay in America.[446] Thandeka K. Chapman believed that Garveyism contributed to the formation of the multicultural education movement during the 1960s.[447] Chapman believed that both “Garveyism and multicultural education share the desire to see students of color learning and achieving academic success”,[391] and both allotted significant attention to generating racial pride.[448]

Influence on religious movements

Garvey never regarded himself as a religious visionary although was perceived as such by some of his followers.[449] Various Bedwardites for example regarded him as the reincarnation of Moses.[449] The Moorish Science Temple of America regarded Garvey as a prophet akin to John the Baptist in relation to their prophet Noble Drew Ali, who they regarded as a Jesus figure.[450] Garvey’s ideas were a significant influence on the Nation of Islam, a religious group for African-Americans established in the U.S. in 1930.[451]

Garvey and Garveyism was a key influence on Rastafari, a new religious movement that appeared in 1930 Jamaica.[452] According to the scholar of religion Maboula Soumahoro, Rastafari “emerged from the socio-political ferment inaugurated by Marcus Garvey”,[453] while for the sociologist Ernest Cashmore, Garvey was the “most important” precursor of the Rastafari movement.[454] Rastafari does not promote all of the views that Garvey espoused, but nevertheless shares many of the same perspectives.[455] Garvey knew of the Rastas from his time in Jamaica during the 1930s but his view of them, according to the scholar Barry Chevannes, “bordered on scorn”.[456] According to Chevannes, Garvey would have regarded the Rastas’ belief in the divinity of Haile Selassie as blasphemy.[457] Many Rastas regarding Garvey as a prophet,[458] believing that he prophesied the crowning of Haile Selassie in a similar manner to how John the Baptist prophesied the coming of Jesus Christ.[459] Many legends and tales are told about him within Jamaica’s Rasta community.[460] Many attribute him with supernatural attributes, for instance there is a tale told about him—and also independently told about the pioneering Rasta Leonard Howell—that Garvey miraculously knew that his bath had been poisoned and refused to get into it.[461] Other stories among Jamaica’s Rastas hold that Garvey never really died and remained alive, perhaps living in Africa.[462] Some Rastas also organise meetings, known as Nyabinghi Issemblies, to mark Garvey’s birthday.[463]

Memorials

A statue of Garvey along the Harris Promenade in San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago

Garvey’s birthplace, 32 Market Street, St. Ann’s Bay, Jamaica, has a marker signifying it as a site of importance in the nation’s history.[464] His likeness was on the 20-dollar coin and 25-cent coin of the Jamaican dollar.[465] In 2012 the Jamaican government declared August 17 as Marcus Garvey Day. The Governor General’s proclamation stated “from here on every year this time, all of us here in Jamaica will be called to mind to remember this outstanding National Hero and what he has done for us as a people, and our children will call this to mind also on this day” and went on to say “to proclaim and make known that the 17th Day of August in each year shall be designated as Marcus Garvey Day and shall so be observed.”[466]

The Brownsville neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York City, is home to Marcus Garvey Village, whose construction was completed in 1976.[467] This building complex is home to the first energy storage microgrid at an affordable housing property in the country. It will use the energy storage system to cut electricity costs, improve grid reliability, and provide backup power during extended outages.[468]

In the 1980s, Garvey’s two sons launched a campaign requesting that the U.S. government issue a pardon for their father. In this they had the support of Harlem Congressman Charles Rangel.[347] In 2006, Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson-Miller tasked various Jamaican lawyers with investigating how they could assist this campaign.[347] The Obama Administration declined to pardon Garvey in 2011, writing that its policy is not to consider requests for posthumous pardons.[469]

There have been several proposals to make a biopic of Garvey’s life. Those mentioned in connection with the role of Garvey have included the Jamaican-born actor Kevin Navayne[470][471] and the British-born actor of Jamaican descent Delroy Lindo.[472][473]

Marcus Garvey appears in Jason Overstreet’s The Strivers’ Row Spy[474][475], a historical fiction novel about of the Harlem Renaissance. The novel also includes W. E. B Du Bois, James Weldon Johnson, Adam Clayton Powell, among other historically significant figures.[476]

References

Footnotes

^ Cronon 1955, p. 4; Hart 1967, p. 218; Martin 1983, p. 8; Grant 2008, pp. 8, 9.
^ Cronon 1955, p. 5; Grant 2008, p. 55.
^ “DNA used to reveal MLK and Garvey’s European Lineage”. The Gio. 13 January 2011. Retrieved 16 May 2019..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:”\”””\”””‘””‘”}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png”);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg”);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png”);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg”);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png”);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg”);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png”);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg”);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}
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^ Grant 2008, p. 8.
^ Grant 2008, pp. 8–9.
^ a b Grant 2008, p. 9.
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^ a b c Moses 1972, p. 39.
^ Cronon 1955, pp. 6–7; Grant 2008, p. 12.
^ Cronon 1955, p. 7; Grant 2008, p. 9.
^ Moses 1972, p. 38; Grant 2008, p. 9.
^ Grant 2008, p. 10.
^ Martin 1983, p. 8.
^ Grant 2008, p. 13.
^ Grant 2008, p. 11.
^ Martin 1983, p. 9; Grant 2008, p. 10.
^ Cronon 1955, p. 8; Moses 1972, pp. 39–40; Martin 1983, p. 9.
^ Cronon 1955, p. 11; Martin 1983, p. 10; Grant 2008, p. 13.
^ a b Grant 2008, p. 14.
^ Cronon 1955, p. 12; Hart 1967, p. 219; Martin 1983, p. 11; Grant 2008, p. 16.
^ a b c Grant 2008, p. 17.
^ Cronon 1955, pp. 12–13; Grant 2008, p. 4.
^ Grant 2008, p. 6.
^ Grant 2008, p. 18.
^ Cronon 1955, p. 13; Hart 1967, p. 219; Martin 1983, p. 11; Grant 2008, p. 18.
^ Cronon 1955, p. 13; Grant 2008, p. 19.
^ Cronon 1955, p. 13; Martin 1983, p. 11; Grant 2008, p. 20.
^ Grant 2008, p. 19.
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^ “Author Interview – Jason Overstreet, author of The Strivers’ Row Spy”. BookPage.com. Retrieved 20 April 2020.

Sources

Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Barnett, Michael (2006). “Differences and Similarities Between the Rastafari Movement and the Nation of Islam”. Journal of Black Studies. 36 (6): 873–893. doi:10.1177/0021934705279611. JSTOR 40034350.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Barrett, Leonard E. (1997) . The Rastafarians. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 9780807010396.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Carter, Shawn (2002). “The Economic Philosophy of Marcus Garvey”. Western Journal of Black Studies. 26 (1): 1–5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Cashmore, E. Ellis (1983). Rastaman: The Rastafarian Movement in England (second ed.). London: Counterpoint. ISBN 978-0-04-301164-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Chapman, Thandeka K. (2004). “Foundations of Multicultural Education: Marcus Garvey and the United Negro Improvement Association”. The Journal of Negro Education. 73 (4): 424–434. doi:10.2307/4129626. JSTOR 4129626.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Chevannes, Barry (1994). Rastafari: Roots and Ideology. Utopianism and Communitarianism Series. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0815602965.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Christian, Mark (2008). “Marcus Garvey and African Unity: Lessons for the Future From the Past”. Journal of Black Studies. 39 (2). pp. 316–331.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Clarke, John Henrik (1974). “Marcus Garvey: The Harlem Years”. Transition (46). pp. 14–19. JSTOR 2934951.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Clarke, Peter B. (1986). Black Paradise: The Rastafarian Movement. New Religious Movements Series. Wellingborough: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 978-0-85030-428-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Coates, Ta-Nehisi (May 2008). “This Is How We Lost to the White Man”. The Atlantic. Retrieved 13 June 2019.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Cronon, Edmund David (1955). Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Edmonds, Ennis B. (2012). Rastafari: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199584529.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Elkins, W. F. (1972). “Marcus Garvey, the “Negro World”, and the British West Indies: 1919-1920″. Science & Society. 36 (1). pp. 63–77. JSTOR 40401615.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Fergus, Claudius (2010). “From Prophecy to Policy: Marcus Garvey and the Evolution of Pan-African Citizenship”. The Global South. 4 (2). pp. 29–48. JSTOR . 10.2979/globalsouth.4.2.29 .CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Grant, Colin (2008). Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0099501459.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Hart, Richard (1967). “The Life and Resurrection of Marcus Garvey”. Race. ix (2). pp. 217–237.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Ifekwe, B. Steiner (2008). “Rastafarianism in Jamaica as a Pan-African Protest Movement”. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria. 17: 106–122. JSTOR 41857150.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Martin, Tony (1983). Marcus Garvey: Hero. Dover, Mass.: Majority Press. ISBN 978-0912469058.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Martin, Tony (2001). Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Revised ed.). Dover, Mass.: Majority Press. ISBN 978-0912469232.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Moses, Wilson S. (1972). “Marcus Garvey: A Reappraisal”. The Black Scholar. 4 (3): 38–49. doi:10.1080/00064246.1972.11431283. JSTOR 41163608.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Soumahoro, Maboula (2007). “Christianity on Trial: The Nation of Islam and the Rastafari, 1930–1950″. In Theodore Louis Trost (ed.). The African Diaspora and the Study of Religion. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 35–48. ISBN 978-1403977861.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

External links

Marcus Garveyat Wikipedia’s sister projects

Media from Wikimedia Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Data from Wikidata

BBC Radio 4 programme about Marcus Garvey – listen online:
Lanset, Andy, “Marcus Garvey: 20th Century Pan-Africanist”. A Public Radio Documentary online
Marcus Garvey at Find a Grave
Ayanna Gillian, “Garvey’s Legacy in Context: Colourism, Black Movements and African Nationalism”, Race and History, 17 August 2005
Marcus Garvey: Look for Me in the Whirlwind. PBS documentary film
UNIA website.
Marcus Garvey economic principles
Marcus Garvey speaks – text and audio
Poem – Ras Nasibu of the Ogaden
“Information – People: Marcus Garvey”, Black Atlantic Rersource, University of Liverpool.
Gunning for the Negro Moses from The Literary Digest, August, 1922
Newspaper clippings about Marcus Garvey in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

Pan-Africanism

Ideology

Variants	Afrocentrism African nationalism African socialism Black nationalism Garveyism Nkrumaism Sankarism Uhuru Movement Zikism
Concepts	African century Black Power Négritude Ubuntu Ujamaa United States of Africa

Proponents

Politicians

Nnamdi Azikiwe
Amílcar Cabral
David Comissiong
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
Anténor Firmin
Muammar Gaddafi
Marcus Garvey
Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof
Kenneth Kaunda
Modibo Keïta
Jomo Kenyatta
Toussaint Louverture
Patrice Lumumba
Samora Machel
Thabo Mbeki
Robert Mugabe
Abdias do Nascimento
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Kwame Nkrumah
Julius Nyerere
John Nyathi Pokela
Thomas Sankara
Ahmed Sékou Touré
Haile Selassie
Robert Sobukwe
I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson

Others

Marimba Ani
Molefi Kete Asante
Steve Biko
Edward Wilmot Blyden
Stokely Carmichael
Aimé Césaire
John Henrik Clarke
Martin R. Delany
Cheikh Anta Diop
W. E. B. Du Bois
Frantz Fanon
John G. Jackson
Leonard Jeffries
Yosef Ben-Jochannan
Maulana Karenga
Fela Kuti
Malcolm X
Zephania Mothopeng
George Padmore
Motsoko Pheko
Runoko Rashidi
Paul Robeson
Randall Robinson
Walter Rodney
Burning Spear
Issa Laye Thiaw
Frances Cress Welsing
Henry Sylvester Williams
Amos N. Wilson
Omali Yeshitela

Organizations

African Union
African Unification Front
All-African People’s Revolutionary Party
Conseil de l’Entente
Convention People’s Party
East African Community
Economic Freedom Fighters
International African Service Bureau
Organisation of African Unity
Pan African Association
Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
Rassemblement Démocratique Africain
Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa
Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes
UNIA-ACL
ZANU–PF

Symbols

Black Star of Africa
Lion of Judah
Pan-African colours
Pan-African flag
The Unknown Maroon

African philosophy
African-American leftism
Africanization
All-African Peoples’ Conference
East African Federation
Kwanzaa
Union of African States
United States of Africa
United States of Latin Africa
Year of Africa

Pan-Africanism category · Africa category · Pan-Africanism portal · Africa portal

v t e Season of Emancipation in Barbados (April 14 to August 23)
Anniversary of Bussa’s rebellion National Heroes Day Crop Over Africa Day Day of National Significance Emancipation Day birthday of Marcus Garvey International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition

Season of Emancipation in Barbados (April 14 to August 23)

Anniversary of Bussa’s rebellion
National Heroes Day
Crop Over
Africa Day
Day of National Significance
Emancipation Day
birthday of Marcus Garvey
International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition

Authority control	BNF: cb11904225q (data) GND: 118716468 ISNI: 0000 0001 2127 2214 LCCN: n79074501 MusicBrainz: 074d02d9-570f-42e6-b08f-fc2270c2bc5a NARA: 10582472 NKC: kup19970000030489 NLI: 000292256 NTA: 068437935 SELIBR: 278633 SNAC: w6vt1sg1 SUDOC: 026882914 Trove: 830758 VIAF: 34456975 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79074501

Egypt 5300 BC 30 BC

bear — Sun, 12 Jul 2015 20:05:04 +0000

Published on 11 Jul 2015

This documentary is based on the study of the African in world civilization.

Africans In Early Europe Dr Ivan Van Sertima

bear — Sun, 12 Jul 2015 19:58:09 +0000

Published on 11 Jul 2015

This documentary is based on the study of the African in world civilization, in particular his little known contributions to the advancement of Europe. A major essay on the evolution of the Caucasoid discusses recent scientific discoveries of the African fatherhood of man and the shift towards albinism (dropping of pigmentation) by the Grimaldi African during an ice age (the Wurm Interstadial) in Europe. The debt owed to African and Arab Moors for certain inventions usually credited to the Renaissance is discussed, as well as the much earlier Afro-Egyptian influence on Greek science and philosophy. The book is divided into six parts: The First Europeans: African Presence in the Ancient Mediterranean Isles and Mainland Greece; Africans in the European Religious Hierarchy (madonnas, saints and popes); African Presence in Western Europe; African Presence in Northern Europe; African Presence in Eastern Europe.

Christianity Before Christ

bear — Thu, 02 Jul 2015 09:47:38 +0000

Nothing is new or original in Christianity. That is the important thesis demonstrated in Christianity Before Christ. The least important features, as well as the most important components, were all well developed in cultures that flourished before the time that Christ is alleged to have walked the parched paths of Roman Palestine.

With a Forword by Frank R. Zindler, the editor of American Atheist press, the book has 12 major chapters, plus Bibliography, Subject Index, and numerous pen-and-ink illustrations.

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The Mis-Education of the Negro

bear — Thu, 02 Jul 2015 09:47:31 +0000

This is a beautiful designed large format edition of the classic THE MIS-EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO by Carter G. Woodson. One of the most important books on education ever written.

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Melanin: What makes Black People Black

bear — Thu, 02 Jul 2015 09:47:22 +0000

The Black race s under-education, dys-education (dysfunctional) and mis-education about Melanin merely reflects one particle of a mis-education. Black people must Know Thyself and to know yourself is to know Melanin.

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bear — Thu, 02 Jul 2015 09:47:15 +0000

A good read

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Stolen Legacy: The Egyptian Origins of Western Philosophy

bear — Thu, 02 Jul 2015 09:47:09 +0000

The term Greek philosophy, to begin with a misnomer, for there is no such philosophy in existence. The ancient Egyptians had developed a very complex religious system, called the Mysteries, which was also the first system of salvation. As such, it regarded the human body as a prison house of the soul, which could be liberated from its bodily impediments, through the disciples of the Arts and Sciences, and advanced form the level of a mortal to that of a God. This was the notion of the summon bonum or greatest good, to which all men must aspire, and it also became the basis of all ethical concepts. The Egyptian Mystery was also a Secret Order, and membership was gained by initiation and a pledge to secrecy. The teaching was graded and delivered orally to the neophyte: and under these circumstances of secrecy, the Egyptians developed secret systems of writing and teaching, and forbade their Initiates from writing what they had learned. After nearly five thousand years of prohibition against the Greeks, they were permitted to enter Egypt for the purpose of their education. First through the Persian invasion and secondly through the invasion of Alexander the Great. From the sixth century B.C. therefore to the death of Aristotle (322 B.C.) the Greeks made the best of their chance to learn all they could about Egyptian culture; most students received instructions directly from the Egyptian Priests, but after the invasion by Alexander the Great, the Royal temples and libraries were plundered and pillaged, and Aristotle’s school converted the library at Alexandria into a research center. There is no wonder then, that the production of the unusually large number of books ascribed to Aristotle has proved a physical impossibility, for any single man within a lifetime.

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Bear Faxx

The Origins of Ragtime: Exploring its Cultural Roots in Turn-of-the-Century America

Introduction to Ragtime: Defining Ragtime

The Time Period: Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

Social and Cultural Context

Urbanization and Entertainment

Economic Climate

African American Roots and Influences

The Role of African American Composers

Key Characteristics of African American Composers

Scott Joplin: A Pioneer in Ragtime

Impact on Future Generations

Cultural Exchange and the Evolution of Ragtime

The Influence of European Classical Music

Ragtime in the Vaudeville Circuit

Key Figures and Milestones

Scott Joplin: The ‘King of Ragtime’

The Publication of ‘The Maple Leaf Rag’

A Key Milestone in Ragtime’s Development

The Impact on Popular Culture

The Significance of Joplin’s Composition

Legacy and Impact

Ragtime’s Influence on American Music

Ragtime in Modern Times

Conclusion

Christianity

Contents

Etymology

Beliefs

Creeds

Jesus

Salvation

Trinity

Eschatology

Practices

Communal worship

Sacraments

Liturgical calendar

Symbols

Baptism

Prayer

Scriptures

Catholic interpretation

Protestant interpretation

History

Early Christianity

Early Middle Ages

High and Late Middle Ages

Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Post-Enlightenment

Demographics

Churches and denominations

Catholic Church

Eastern Orthodox Church

Oriental Orthodoxy

Assyrian Church of the East

Protestantism

Restorationism

Other

Influence on western culture

Ecumenism

Criticism, persecution, and apologetics

Criticism

Persecution

Apologetics

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Marcus Garvey

Contents

Early life

Childhood: 1887–1904

Early career in Kingston: 1905–1909

Travels abroad: 1910–1914

Organization of UNIA

Forming UNIA: 1914–1916

To the United States: 1916–1918